Jean-Jacques Rousseau · Complete work
Book III, Chapter 3
Book III, Chapter 3 of 49. Read it here for reference, or continue through the entire work without leaving the reader.
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Division des Gouvernemens.
On a vu dans le chapitre précédent pourquoi l’on distingue les diverses especes ou formes de Gouvernemens par le nombre des membres qui les composent; il reste à voir dans celui-ci comment se fait cette division.
Le Souverain peut, en premier lieu, commettre le dépôt du Gouvernement à tout le peuple ou à la plus grande partie du peuple, en sorte qu’il y ait plus de citoyens magistrats que de citoyens simples particuliers. On donne à cette forme de Gouvernement le nom de Démocratie.
Ou bien il peut resserrer le Gouvernement entre les mains d’un petit nombre, en sorte qu’il y ait plus de simples Citoyens que de magistrats, & cette forme porte le nom d’Aristocratie.
Enfin il peut concentrer tout le Gouvernement dans les mains d’un magistrat unique dont tous les autres tiennent leur pouvoir. Cette troisieme forme est la plus commune, & s’appelle Monarchie ou Gouvernement royal.
On doit remarquer que toutes ces formes ou du moins les deux premieres sont susceptibles de plus ou de moins, & ont même une assez grande latitude; car la Démocratie peut embrasser tout le peuple ou se resserrer jusqu’à la moitié. L’Aristocratie à son tour peut de la moitié du peuple se resserrer jusqu’au plus petit nombre indéterminément. La Royauté même est susceptible de quelque partage. Sparte eut constamment deux Rois par sa constitution, & l’on a vu dans l’empire romain jusqu’à huit Empereurs à la fois, sans qu’on pût dire que l’Empire fut divisé. Ainsi il y a un point où chaque forme de Gouvernement se confond avec la suivante, & l’on voit, que sous trois seules dénominations, le Gouvernement est réellement susceptible d’autant de formes diverses que l’Etat a de Citoyens.
Il y a plus: Ce même Gouvernement pouvant à certains égards se subdiviser en d’autres parties, l’une administrée d’une maniere & l’autre d’une autre, il peut résulter de ces trois formes combinées une multitude de formes mixtes, dont chacune est multipliable par toutes les formes simples.
On a de tous tems beaucoup disputé sur la meilleure forme de Gouvernement, sans considérer que chacune d’elles est la meilleure en certains cas, & la pire en d’autres.
Si dans les différens États le nombre des magistrats suprêmes doit être en raison inverse de celui des Citoyens, il s’ensuit qu’en général le Gouvernement Démocratique convient aux petits États, l’Aristocratique aux médiocres, & le Monarchique aux grands. Cette regle se tire immédiatement du principe; mais comment compter la multitude de circonstances qui peuvent fournir des exceptions?
Musean translation
Mouseia’s complete machine-assisted Musean translation, made directly from the complete French text of the 1762 edition, all four books and the appendix for fidelity, the author’s force and cadence, and modern clarity.
The Division of Governments
We saw in the preceding chapter why the different kinds or forms of government are distinguished by the number of members composing them. It remains to see how this division is made.
The sovereign may, in the first place, entrust the government to the whole people or to the greater part of the people, so that there are more citizens who are magistrates than citizens who are private individuals. This form of government is called democracy.
Or it may confine the government to the hands of a small number, so that there are more ordinary citizens than magistrates; this form is called aristocracy.
Finally, it may concentrate the entire government in the hands of a single magistrate, from whom all the others derive their power. This third form is the most common and is called monarchy, or royal government.
It should be noted that all these forms, or at least the first two, admit of degrees and have a fairly wide range. Democracy may embrace the whole people or narrow itself to half. Aristocracy, in turn, may narrow from half the people to an indefinitely small number. Even kingship admits of some division. Sparta consistently had two kings under its constitution, and the Roman Empire saw as many as eight emperors at once, without anyone being able to say that the empire was divided. Thus there is a point where each form of government merges with the next; and we see that under just three names, government can in reality take as many different forms as the state has citizens.
More than that: since any one of these governments may in certain respects be subdivided into further parts, one administered in one fashion and another in another, these three forms can combine to produce a multitude of mixed forms, each of which can be multiplied by every simple form.
People have always argued at length over the best form of government without considering that each is best in some circumstances and worst in others.
If, among different states, the number of supreme magistrates should stand in inverse proportion to the number of citizens, it follows that, in general, democratic government suits small states, aristocratic government those of middling size, and monarchical government large ones. This rule follows directly from the principle. But how can one count the multitude of circumstances that may furnish exceptions?
Plain English translation
Mouseia’s complete Plain English edition, made independently and directly from the complete French text of the 1762 edition, all four books and the appendix.
The division of governments.
The preceding chapter showed why the different kinds or forms of government are distinguished by the number of their members. We must now see how this division works.
First, the sovereign may entrust the government to all the people or to most of them, so that more citizens are magistrates than private citizens. This form of government is called democracy.
Or the sovereign may place the government in the hands of a small number, so that there are more ordinary citizens than magistrates. This form is called aristocracy.
Finally, the sovereign may place the whole government in the hands of a single magistrate, from whom all the others get their authority. This third form is the most common, and is called monarchy or royal government.
It should be noted that all these forms, or at least the first two, can vary in degree. They cover a fairly wide range. Democracy can include the whole population or be limited to half of it. Aristocracy, in turn, can shrink from half the population to an indefinitely small number. Even kingship can be divided to some extent. By its constitution Sparta always had two kings. In the Roman Empire there were as many as eight emperors at once, without anyone being able to say that the Empire was divided. So there is a point where each form of government merges with the next. Though there are only three names, there can really be as many different forms of government as there are citizens in the state.
There is more. A single government may in some respects divide into parts, one administered in one way and another in another way. Combining the three forms can thus produce many mixed forms, each of which can be varied by all the simple forms.
People have long argued a great deal about the best form of government. They have not considered that each is best in some cases and worst in others.
If the number of supreme magistrates in different states must move in the opposite direction from the number of citizens, then, generally speaking, democratic government suits small states, aristocratic government suits states of moderate size, and monarchy suits large ones. This rule follows directly from the principle. But how can we count the many circumstances that might create exceptions?