Aristotle · Complete work
Chapter 24
Chapter 24 of 26. Read it here for reference, or continue through the entire work without leaving the reader.
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ἔτι δὲ τὰ εἴδη ταὐτὰ δεῖ ἔχειν τὴν ἐποποιίαν τῇ τραγῳδίᾳ, ἢ γὰρ ἁπλῆν ἢ πεπλεγμένην ἢ ἠθικὴν ἢ[Bekker 1459b line 10]παθητικήν·καὶ τὰ μέρη ἔξω μελοποιίας καὶ ὄψεως ταὐτά· καὶ γὰρ περιπετειῶν δεῖ καὶ ἀναγνωρίσεων καὶ παθημάτων· ἔτι τὰς διανοίας καὶ τὴν λέξιν ἔχειν καλῶς.οἷς ἅπασιν Ὅμηρος κέχρηται καὶ πρῶτος καὶ ἱκανῶς. καὶ γὰρ τῶν ποιημάτων ἑκάτερον συνέστηκεν ἡ μὲν Ἰλιὰς ἁπλοῦν[Bekker 1459b line 15]καὶ παθητικόν, ἡ δὲ Ὀδύσσεια πεπλεγμένον (ἀναγνώρισις γὰρ διόλου) καὶ ἠθική· πρὸς δὲ τούτοις λέξει καὶ διανοίᾳ πάντα ὑπερβέβληκεν.διαφέρει δὲ κατά τε τῆς συστάσεως τὸ μῆκος ἡ ἐποποιία καὶ τὸ μέτρον.τοῦ μὲν οὖν μήκους ὅρος ἱκανὸς ὁ εἰρημένος· δύνασθαι γὰρ δεῖ συνορᾶσθαι τὴν ἀρχὴν[Bekker 1459b line 20]καὶ τὸ τέλος. εἴη δ’ ἂν τοῦτο, εἰ τῶν μὲν ἀρχαίων ἐλάττους αἱ συστάσεις εἶεν, πρὸς δὲ τὸ πλῆθος τραγῳδιῶν τῶν εἰς μίαν ἀκρόασιν τιθεμένων παρήκοιεν.ἔχει δὲ πρὸς τὸ ἐπεκτείνεσθαι τὸ μέγεθος πολύ τι ἡ ἐποποιία ἴδιον διὰ τὸ ἐν μὲν τῇ τραγῳδίᾳ μὴ ἐνδέχεσθαι ἅμα πραττόμενα[Bekker 1459b line 25]πολλὰ μέρη μιμεῖσθαι ἀλλὰ τὸ ἐπὶ τῆς σκηνῆς καὶ τῶν ὑποκριτῶν μέρος μόνον· ἐν δὲ τῇ ἐποποιίᾳ διὰ τὸ διήγησιν εἶναι ἔστι πολλὰ μέρη ἅμα ποιεῖν περαινόμενα, ὑφ’ ὧν οἰκείων ὄντων αὔξεται ὁ τοῦ ποιήματος ὄγκος.ὥστε τοῦτ’ ἔχει τὸ ἀγαθὸν εἰς μεγαλοπρέπειαν καὶ τὸ μεταβάλλειν τὸν[Bekker 1459b line 30]ἀκούοντα καὶ ἐπεισοδιοῦν ἀνομοίοις ἐπεισοδίοις· τὸ γὰρ ὅμοιον ταχὺ πληροῦν ἐκπίπτειν ποιεῖ τὰς τραγῳδίας.τὸ δὲ μέτρον τὸ ἡρωικὸν ἀπὸ τῆς πείρας ἥρμοκεν. εἰ γάρ τις ἐν ἄλλῳ τινὶ μέτρῳ διηγηματικὴν μίμησιν ποιοῖτο ἢ ἐν πολλοῖς, ἀπρεπὲς ἂν φαίνοιτο·τὸ γὰρ ἡρωικὸν στασιμώτατον καὶ[Bekker 1459b line 35]ὀγκωδέστατον τῶν μέτρων ἐστίν (διὸ καὶ γλώττας καὶ μεταφορὰς δέχεται μάλιστα· περιττὴ γὰρ καὶ ἡ διηγηματικὴ μίμησις τῶν ἄλλων),τὸ δὲ ἰαμβεῖον καὶ τετράμετρον[Bekker 1460a][Bekker 1460a line 1]κινητικὰ καὶ τὸ μὲν ὀρχηστικὸν τὸ δὲ πρακτικόν.ἔτι δὲ ἀτοπώτερον εἰ μιγνύοι τις αὐτά, ὥσπερ Χαιρήμων.διὸ οὐδεὶς μακρὰν σύστασιν ἐν ἄλλῳ πεποίηκεν ἢ τῷ ἡρῴῳ, ἀλλ’ ὥσπερ εἴπομεν αὐτὴ ἡ φύσις διδάσκει τὸ ἁρμόττον αὐτῇ[Bekker 1460a line 5]αἱρεῖσθαι.Ὅμηρος δὲ ἄλλα τε πολλὰ ἄξιος ἐπαινεῖσθαι καὶ δὴ καὶ ὅτι μόνος τῶν ποιητῶν οὐκ ἀγνοεῖ ὃ δεῖ ποιεῖν αὐτόν.αὐτὸν γὰρ δεῖ τὸν ποιητὴν ἐλάχιστα λέγειν· οὐ γάρ ἐστι κατὰ ταῦτα μιμητής. οἱ μὲν οὖν ἄλλοι αὐτοὶ μὲν δι’ ὅλου ἀγωνίζονται, μιμοῦνται δὲ ὀλίγα καὶ ὀλιγάκις· ὁ δὲ ὀλίγα[Bekker 1460a line 10]φροιμιασάμενος εὐθὺς εἰσάγει ἄνδρα ἢ γυναῖκα ἢ ἄλλο τι ἦθος, καὶ οὐδέν’ ἀήθη ἀλλ’ ἔχοντα ἦθος.δεῖ μὲν οὖν ἐν ταῖς τραγῳδίαις ποιεῖν τὸ θαυμαστόν, μᾶλλον δ’ ἐνδέχεται ἐν[Bekker 1460a line 13]τῇ ἐποποιίᾳ τὸ ἄλογον, δι’ ὃ συμβαίνει μάλιστα τὸ θαυμαστόν, διὰ τὸ μὴ ὁρᾶν εἰς τὸν πράττοντα·ἐπεὶ τὰ περὶ[Bekker 1460a line 15]τὴν Ἕκτορος δίωξιν ἐπὶ σκηνῆς ὄντα γελοῖα ἂν φανείη, οἱ μὲν ἑστῶτες καὶ οὐ διώκοντες, ὁ δὲ ἀνανεύων, ἐν δὲ τοῖς ἔπεσιν λανθάνει.τὸ δὲ θαυμαστὸν ἡδύ· σημεῖον δέ, πάντες γὰρ προστιθέντες ἀπαγγέλλουσιν ὡς χαριζόμενοι.δεδίδαχεν δὲ μάλιστα Ὅμηρος καὶ τοὺς ἄλλους ψευδῆ λέγειν ὡς δεῖ.[Bekker 1460a line 20]ἔστι δὲ τοῦτο παραλογισμός. οἴονται γὰρ οἱ ἄνθρωποι, ὅταν τουδὶ ὄντος τοδὶ ᾖ ἢ γινομένου γίνηται, εἰ τὸ ὕστερον ἔστιν, καὶ τὸ πρότερον εἶναι ἢ γίνεσθαι· τοῦτο δέ ἐστι ψεῦδος. διὸ δεῖ, ἂν τὸ πρῶτον ψεῦδος, ἄλλο δὲ τούτου ὄντος ἀνάγκη εἶναι ἢ γενέσθαι ᾖ, προσθεῖναι· διὰ γὰρ τὸ τοῦτο εἰδέναι ἀληθὲς ὂν[Bekker 1460a line 25]παραλογίζεται ἡμῶν ἡ ψυχὴ καὶ τὸ πρῶτον ὡς ὄν. παράδειγμα δὲ τούτου τὸ ἐκ τῶν Νίπτρων.προαιρεῖσθαί τε δεῖ ἀδύνατα εἰκότα μᾶλλον ἢ δυνατὰ ἀπίθανα·τούς τε λόγους μὴ συνίστασθαι ἐκ μερῶν ἀλόγων, ἀλλὰ μάλιστα μὲν μηδὲν ἔχειν ἄλογον, εἰ δὲ μή, ἔξω τοῦ μυθεύματος, ὥσπερ[Bekker 1460a line 30]Οἰδίπους τὸ μὴ εἰδέναι πῶς ὁ Λάιος ἀπέθανεν, ἀλλὰ μὴ ἐν τῷ δράματι, ὥσπερ ἐν Ἠλέκτρᾳ οἱ τὰ Πύθια ἀπαγγέλλοντες ἢ ἐν Μυσοῖς ὁ ἄφωνος ἐκ Τεγέας εἰς τὴν Μυσίαν ἥκων.ὥστε τὸ λέγειν ὅτι ἀνῄρητο ἂν ὁ μῦθος γελοῖον· ἐξ ἀρχῆς γὰρ οὐ δεῖ συνίστασθαι τοιούτους. † ἂν δὲ θῇ καὶ φαίνηται[Bekker 1460a line 35]εὐλογωτέρως ἐνδέχεσθαι καὶ ἄτοπον †ἐπεὶ καὶ τὰ ἐν Ὀδυσσείᾳ ἄλογα τὰ περὶ τὴν ἔκθεσιν ὡς οὐκ ἂν ἦν ἀνεκτὰ δῆλον ἂν[Bekker 1460b][Bekker 1460b line 1]γένοιτο, εἰ αὐτὰ φαῦλος ποιητὴς ποιήσειε· νῦν δὲ τοῖς ἄλλοις ἀγαθοῖς ὁ ποιητὴς ἀφανίζει ἡδύνων τὸ ἄτοπον.τῇ δὲ λέξει δεῖ διαπονεῖν ἐν τοῖς ἀργοῖς μέρεσιν καὶ μήτε ἠθικοῖς μήτε διανοητικοῖς· ἀποκρύπτει γὰρ πάλιν ἡ λίαν λαμπρὰ[Bekker 1460b line 5]λέξις τά τε ἤθη καὶ τὰς διανοίας.
Mouseia
Mouseia’s complete machine-assisted Musean translation, made directly from all 26 Ancient Greek chapters with all 279 Bekker markers preserved for fidelity, technical precision, clarity, and structure.
Furthermore, epic poetry must have the same kinds as tragedy: it must be either simple or complex, ethical or[Bekker 1459b line 10]pathetic.Its parts also are the same, apart from song and spectacle; for it requires reversals, recognitions, and scenes of suffering, and its thought and diction must be excellent.Homer employed all these, both first and adequately. Each of his poems is so constituted: the Iliad is simple[Bekker 1459b line 15]and pathetic, while the Odyssey is complex—for recognition runs throughout it—and ethical; and besides these merits, he has surpassed everyone in diction and thought.Epic differs from tragedy, however, in the length of its structure and in its meter.For its length, the limit already stated is sufficient: one must be able to take in the beginning[Bekker 1459b line 20]and the end together. This would be possible if the structures were shorter than those of the ancient poets but extended to the length of the number of tragedies presented at a single hearing.Epic poetry possesses a considerable means peculiar to itself for enlarging its scope. In tragedy it is impossible to imitate many parts of the action occurring[Bekker 1459b line 25]simultaneously, but only the part enacted upon the stage by the actors; in epic poetry, because it is narrative, many parts may be represented as being accomplished at the same time, and if they are relevant, they increase the poem’s bulk.Thus epic has this advantage for attaining grandeur, varying the experience of the[Bekker 1459b line 30]hearer, and enriching the poem with dissimilar episodes; for sameness, by quickly producing satiety, causes tragedies to fail.Experience has shown the heroic meter to be appropriate. For if anyone were to compose narrative imitation in some other meter, or in several meters, the result would plainly be unsuitable.The heroic is the most stately and[Bekker 1459b line 35]weighty of meters; hence it especially admits foreign words and metaphors, since narrative imitation also surpasses the others in elevation.The iambic and the tetrameter,[Bekker 1460a][Bekker 1460a line 1]by contrast, are meters of movement, the one suited to dancing and the other to action.It would be still more incongruous if someone mixed them, as Chaeremon did.Therefore no one has composed a long structure in any meter other than the heroic; rather, as we have said, nature herself teaches the poet to choose what is appropriate to it.[Bekker 1460a line 5]Homer deserves praise for many other things, and especially because he alone among poets does not fail to understand what the poet himself ought to do.The poet himself should speak as little as possible, since it is not by speaking in his own person that he is an imitator. Other poets remain personally before us throughout and imitate only a few things, and those seldom; but Homer, after a brief[Bekker 1460a line 10]preamble, immediately introduces a man, a woman, or some other character—and never one without character, but always one possessing it.The marvelous should certainly be introduced into tragedies, but the irrational, which is the chief source of the marvelous, is more admissible in[Bekker 1460a line 13]epic poetry because the agent is not before our eyes.For the circumstances surrounding[Bekker 1460a line 15]the pursuit of Hector would appear ridiculous onstage: the others standing still and not joining the pursuit, while Achilles signals them back; but in epic verse the absurdity passes unnoticed.And the marvelous is pleasurable. The proof is that everyone adds something when telling a story, in the belief that he is pleasing his audience.Homer above all has taught the other poets how falsehoods should be told.[Bekker 1460a line 20]The method is false inference. People suppose that whenever, if one thing exists or occurs, another exists or occurs, then if the latter exists, the former must also exist or occur; but this is false. Therefore, if the first thing is false, but if it existed some other thing would necessarily exist or occur, the poet should add that other thing. Because we know the latter to be true,[Bekker 1460a line 25]our mind falsely infers that the first is true as well. An example is the episode of the Washing.One should prefer probable impossibilities to improbable possibilities.Plots should not be constructed from irrational parts; ideally, they should contain nothing irrational, but failing that, the irrationality should lie outside the plot, as with Oedipus’ ignorance of how Laius died, and not within the drama, as in the Electra with those who report the Pythian games, or in the Mysians with the speechless man who comes from Tegea to Mysia.[Bekker 1460a line 30]Thus it is ridiculous to say that otherwise the plot would be destroyed; for such plots should not be constructed in the first place. † But if the poet does introduce such a thing, and it appears that it could occur more reasonably, even an absurdity †For it would become[Bekker 1460a line 35]clear that even the irrational circumstances in the Odyssey surrounding Odysseus’ being put ashore would not have been tolerable[Bekker 1460b][Bekker 1460b line 1]if an inferior poet had composed them; but as it is, the poet uses his other excellences to conceal the absurdity by making it pleasurable.Diction should be elaborated especially in the inactive passages, where neither character nor thought is present; for excessively brilliant[Bekker 1460b line 5]diction in turn obscures both character and thought.
Mouseia
Mouseia’s complete Plain English edition, made independently and directly from all 26 Ancient Greek chapters with all 279 Bekker markers preserved.
Furthermore, epic poetry must have the same kinds as tragedy: it must be either simple, complex, character-based, or[Bekker 1459b line 10]centered on suffering.Its parts also are the same, apart from song and spectacle, for it too requires reversals, recognitions, and scenes of suffering; furthermore, its thought and diction must be good.Homer was the first to use all these elements, and he used them adequately. Each of his poems is constructed accordingly: the Iliad is simple[Bekker 1459b line 15]and centered on suffering, while the Odyssey is complex—for recognition runs throughout it—and character-based. In addition, he has surpassed everyone in diction and thought.Epic poetry differs from tragedy in the length of its structure and in its meter.For length, the limit already stated is adequate: one must be able to take in the beginning[Bekker 1459b line 20]and the end together. This would be possible if epic structures were shorter than those of the ancient poets but extended to the length of the number of tragedies presented at a single performance.Epic poetry has a distinctive and considerable capacity for extending its length, because in tragedy it is impossible to imitate many parts of the action occurring[Bekker 1459b line 25]simultaneously, but only the part performed onstage by the actors; in epic poetry, however, because it is narrative, many parts can be represented as taking place simultaneously, and if they are relevant, they increase the poem’s bulk.Thus epic has this advantage in producing grandeur, varying the experience of the[Bekker 1459b line 30]listener, and introducing diverse episodes; for sameness quickly produces satiety and causes tragedies to fail.Experience has shown that the heroic meter is appropriate. If someone were to compose a narrative imitation in some other meter, or in several meters, it would clearly be inappropriate.For the heroic meter is the most stately and weighty[Bekker 1459b line 35]of the meters, which is why it admits foreign words and metaphors more readily than any other; narrative imitation is itself more elevated than the others.The iambic and the tetrameter,[Bekker 1460a][Bekker 1460a line 1]by contrast, are meters of movement: the latter is suited to dancing and the former to action.It would be still more out of place if someone mixed them, as Chaeremon did.That is why no one has composed a long structure in any meter other than the heroic. As we have said, nature itself teaches us to choose the meter appropriate to it.[Bekker 1460a line 5]Homer deserves praise for many other things, and especially because he alone among poets understands what the poet himself should do.The poet himself should say as little as possible, since it is not by speaking in his own person that he is an imitator. Other poets perform in their own person throughout and imitate only a few things, and only occasionally. Homer, after a brief[Bekker 1460a line 10]introduction, immediately brings in a man, a woman, or some other character, and no one without character, but always someone possessing character.The marvelous should certainly be produced in tragedies, but the irrational, which is the chief source of the marvelous, is more admissible in[Bekker 1460a line 13]epic poetry because the person acting is not visible.For the circumstances surrounding[Bekker 1460a line 15]the pursuit of Hector would appear ridiculous onstage: the others standing still and not joining the pursuit, while Achilles signals them not to; but in epic verse the absurdity passes unnoticed.The marvelous is pleasurable. The proof is that everyone adds to a story when recounting it, in the belief that this pleases the audience.Homer above all has taught the other poets how to tell falsehoods properly.[Bekker 1460a line 20]The method is a false inference. People suppose that when, if one thing exists or occurs, another exists or occurs, then if the later thing exists, the earlier thing must also exist or occur. But this is false. Therefore, if the first thing is false, but if it existed something else would necessarily exist or occur, the poet should add that second thing. Because we know that the second thing is true,[Bekker 1460a line 25]our minds falsely infer that the first is also true. An example is the episode from the Washing Scene.One should prefer probable impossibilities to implausible possibilities.Plots should not be constructed from irrational parts. Ideally, they should contain nothing irrational; but if they do, it should lie outside the action represented in the plot, as with Oedipus’s ignorance of how Laius died, and not within the drama, as with those who report the Pythian Games in the Electra, or the mute man who comes from Tegea to Mysia in the Mysians.[Bekker 1460a line 30]Thus it is ridiculous to say that otherwise the plot would be destroyed, since such plots should not be constructed in the first place. † But if the poet does introduce an irrationality, and it appears that it could occur with greater plausibility, then even an absurdity may be admitted. †For it would be[Bekker 1460a line 35]clear that the irrational circumstances surrounding Odysseus’s exposure in the Odyssey would not have been tolerable[Bekker 1460b][Bekker 1460b line 1]if an inferior poet had composed them. As it is, however, the poet uses his other excellences to conceal the absurdity by making it pleasurable.Diction should be worked out most carefully in the inactive portions that display neither character nor thought, since excessively brilliant[Bekker 1460b line 5]diction in turn obscures both character and thought.