Thomas Hobbes · Complete work
Part II, Chapter XXXI, 1
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OF THE KINGDOME OF GOD BY NATURE
That the condition of meer Nature, that is to say, of absolute Liberty, such as is theirs, that neither are Soveraigns, nor Subjects, is Anarchy, and the condition of Warre: That the Praecepts, by which men are guided to avoyd that condition, are the Lawes of Nature: That a Common-wealth, without Soveraign Power, is but a word, without substance, and cannot stand: That Subjects owe to Soveraigns, simple Obedience, in all things, wherein their obedience is not repugnant to the Lawes of God, I have sufficiently proved, in that which I have already written. There wants onely, for the entire knowledge of Civill duty, to know what are those Lawes of God. For without that, a man knows not, when he is commanded any thing by the Civill Power, whether it be contrary to the Law of God, or not: and so, either by too much civill obedience, offends the Divine Majesty, or through feare of offending God, transgresses the commandements of the Common-wealth. To avoyd both these Rocks, it is necessary to know what are the Lawes Divine. And seeing the knowledge of all Law, dependeth on the knowledge of the Soveraign Power; I shall say something in that which followeth, of the KINGDOME OF GOD.
“God is King, let the Earth rejoice,” saith the Psalmist. (Psal. 96. 1). And again, “God is King though the Nations be angry; and he that sitteth on the Cherubins, though the earth be moved.” (Psal. 98. 1). Whether men will or not, they must be subject alwayes to the Divine Power. By denying the Existence, or Providence of God, men may shake off their Ease, but not their Yoke. But to call this Power of God, which extendeth it selfe not onely to Man, but also to Beasts, and Plants, and Bodies inanimate, by the name of Kingdome, is but a metaphoricall use of the word. For he onely is properly said to Raigne, that governs his Subjects, by his Word, and by promise of Rewards to those that obey it, and by threatning them with Punishment that obey it not. Subjects therefore in the Kingdome of God, are not Bodies Inanimate, nor creatures Irrationall; because they understand no Precepts as his: Nor Atheists; nor they that believe not that God has any care of the actions of mankind; because they acknowledge no Word for his, nor have hope of his rewards, or fear of his threatnings. They therefore that believe there is a God that governeth the world, and hath given Praecepts, and propounded Rewards, and Punishments to Mankind, are Gods Subjects; all the rest, are to be understood as Enemies.
To rule by Words, requires that such Words be manifestly made known; for else they are no Lawes: For to the nature of Lawes belongeth a sufficient, and clear Promulgation, such as may take away the excuse of Ignorance; which in the Lawes of men is but of one onely kind, and that is, Proclamation, or Promulgation by the voyce of man. But God declareth his Lawes three wayes; by the Dictates of Naturall Reason, By Revelation, and by the Voyce of some Man, to whom by the operation of Miracles, he procureth credit with the rest. From hence there ariseth a triple Word of God, Rational, Sensible, and Prophetique: to which Correspondeth a triple Hearing; Right Reason, Sense Supernaturall, and Faith. As for Sense Supernaturall, which consisteth in Revelation, or Inspiration, there have not been any Universall Lawes so given, because God speaketh not in that manner, but to particular persons, and to divers men divers things.
A Twofold Kingdome Of God, Naturall And Prophetique From the difference between the other two kinds of Gods Word, Rationall, and Prophetique, there may be attributed to God, a two-fold Kingdome, Naturall, and Prophetique: Naturall, wherein he governeth as many of Mankind as acknowledge his Providence, by the naturall Dictates of Right Reason; And Prophetique, wherein having chosen out one peculiar Nation (the Jewes) for his Subjects, he governed them, and none but them, not onely by naturall Reason, but by Positive Lawes, which he gave them by the mouths of his holy Prophets. Of the Naturall Kingdome of God I intend to speak in this Chapter.
The Right Of Gods Soveraignty Is Derived From His Omnipotence The Right of Nature, whereby God reigneth over men, and punisheth those that break his Lawes, is to be derived, not from his Creating them, as if he required obedience, as of Gratitude for his benefits; but from his Irresistible Power. I have formerly shewn, how the Soveraign Right ariseth from Pact: To shew how the same Right may arise from Nature, requires no more, but to shew in what case it is never taken away. Seeing all men by Nature had Right to All things, they had Right every one to reigne over all the rest. But because this Right could not be obtained by force, it concerned the safety of every one, laying by that Right, to set up men (with Soveraign Authority) by common consent, to rule and defend them: whereas if there had been any man of Power Irresistible; there had been no reason, why he should not by that Power have ruled, and defended both himselfe, and them, according to his own discretion. To those therefore whose Power is irresistible, the dominion of all men adhaereth naturally by their excellence of Power; and consequently it is from that Power, that the Kingdome over men, and the Right of afflicting men at his pleasure, belongeth Naturally to God Almighty; not as Creator, and Gracious; but as Omnipotent. And though Punishment be due for Sinne onely, because by that word is understood Affliction for Sinne; yet the Right of Afflicting, is not alwayes derived from mens Sinne, but from Gods Power.
This question, “Why Evill men often Prosper, and Good men suffer Adversity,” has been much disputed by the Antient, and is the same with this of ours, “By what Right God dispenseth the Prosperities and Adversities of this life;” and is of that difficulty, as it hath shaken the faith, not onely of the Vulgar, but of Philosophers, and which is more, of the Saints, concerning the Divine Providence. “How Good,” saith David, “is the God of Israel to those that are Upright in Heart; and yet my feet were almost gone, my treadings had well-nigh slipt; for I was grieved at the Wicked, when I saw the Ungodly in such Prosperity.” And Job, how earnestly does he expostulate with God, for the many Afflictions he suffered, notwithstanding his Righteousnesse? This question in the case of Job, is decided by God himselfe, not by arguments derived from Job’s Sinne, but his own Power. For whereas the friends of Job drew their arguments from his Affliction to his Sinne, and he defended himselfe by the conscience of his Innocence, God himselfe taketh up the matter, and having justified the Affliction by arguments drawn from his Power, such as this “Where was thou when I layd the foundations of the earth,” and the like, both approved Job’s Innocence, and reproved the Erroneous doctrine of his friends. Conformable to this doctrine is the sentence of our Saviour, concerning the man that was born Blind, in these words, “Neither hath this man sinned, nor his fathers; but that the works of God might be made manifest in him.” And though it be said “That Death entred into the world by sinne,” (by which is meant that if Adam had never sinned, he had never dyed, that is, never suffered any separation of his soule from his body,) it follows not thence, that God could not justly have Afflicted him, though he had not Sinned, as well as he afflicteth other living creatures, that cannot sinne.
Having spoken of the Right of Gods Soveraignty, as grounded onely on Nature; we are to consider next, what are the Divine Lawes, or Dictates of Naturall Reason; which Lawes concern either the naturall Duties of one man to another, or the Honour naturally due to our Divine Soveraign. The first are the same Lawes of Nature, of which I have spoken already in the 14. and 15. Chapters of this Treatise; namely, Equity, Justice, Mercy, Humility, and the rest of the Morall Vertues. It remaineth therefore that we consider, what Praecepts are dictated to men, by their Naturall Reason onely, without other word of God, touching the Honour and Worship of the Divine Majesty.
Honour consisteth in the inward thought, and opinion of the Power, and Goodnesse of another: and therefore to Honour God, is to think as Highly of his Power and Goodnesse, as is possible. And of that opinion, the externall signes appearing in the Words, and Actions of men, are called Worship; which is one part of that which the Latines understand by the word Cultus: For Cultus signifieth properly, and constantly, that labour which a man bestowes on any thing, with a purpose to make benefit by it. Now those things whereof we make benefit, are either subject to us, and the profit they yeeld, followeth the labour we bestow upon them, as a naturall effect; or they are not subject to us, but answer our labour, according to their own Wills. In the first sense the labour bestowed on the Earth, is called Culture; and the education of Children a Culture of their mindes. In the second sense, where mens wills are to be wrought to our purpose, not by Force, but by Compleasance, it signifieth as much as Courting, that is, a winning of favour by good offices; as by praises, by acknowledging their Power, and by whatsoever is pleasing to them from whom we look for any benefit. And this is properly Worship: in which sense Publicola, is understood for a Worshipper of the People, and Cultus Dei, for the Worship of God.
From internall Honour, consisting in the opinion of Power and Goodnesse, arise three Passions; Love, which hath reference to Goodnesse; and Hope, and Fear, that relate to Power: And three parts of externall worship; Praise, Magnifying, and Blessing: The subject of Praise, being Goodnesse; the subject of Magnifying, and Blessing, being Power, and the effect thereof Felicity. Praise, and Magnifying are significant both by Words, and Actions: By Words, when we say a man is Good, or Great: By Actions, when we thank him for his Bounty, and obey his Power. The opinion of the Happinesse of another, can onely be expressed by words.
There be some signes of Honour, (both in Attributes and Actions,) that be Naturally so; as amongst Attributes, Good, Just, Liberall, and the like; and amongst Actions, Prayers, Thanks, and Obedience. Others are so by Institution, or Custome of men; and in some times and places are Honourable; in others Dishonourable; in others Indifferent: such as are the Gestures in Salutation, Prayer, and Thanksgiving, in different times and places, differently used. The former is Naturall; the later Arbitrary Worship.
And of Arbitrary Worship, there bee two differences: For sometimes it is a Commanded, sometimes Voluntary Worship: Commanded, when it is such as hee requireth, who is Worshipped: Free, when it is such as the Worshipper thinks fit. When it is Commanded, not the words, or gestures, but the obedience is the Worship. But when Free, the Worship consists in the opinion of the beholders: for if to them the words, or actions by which we intend honour, seem ridiculous, and tending to contumely; they are not Worship; because a signe is not a signe to him that giveth it, but to him to whom it is made; that is, to the spectator.
Again, there is a Publique, and a Private Worship. Publique, is the Worship that a Common-wealth performeth, as one Person. Private, is that which a Private person exhibiteth. Publique, in respect of the whole Common-wealth, is Free; but in respect of Particular men it is not so. Private, is in secret Free; but in the sight of the multitude, it is never without some Restraint, either from the Lawes, or from the Opinion of men; which is contrary to the nature of Liberty.
The End of Worship amongst men, is Power. For where a man seeth another worshipped he supposeth him powerfull, and is the readier to obey him; which makes his Power greater. But God has no Ends: the worship we do him, proceeds from our duty, and is directed according to our capacity, by those rules of Honour, that Reason dictateth to be done by the weak to the more potent men, in hope of benefit, for fear of dammage, or in thankfulnesse for good already received from them.
Musean translation
Mouseia’s complete machine-assisted Musean translation, made directly from the complete 1651 English text (introduction, forty-seven chapters, review and conclusion) for fidelity, the author’s force and cadence, and modern clarity. Hobbes’s marginal summaries are omitted.
OF THE KINGDOM OF GOD BY NATURE
I have sufficiently proved in what I have already written that the condition of mere nature—that is, of absolute liberty, belonging to those who are neither sovereigns nor subjects—is anarchy and a condition of war; that the precepts guiding men away from it are the Laws of Nature; that a Common-wealth without Sovereign Power is only a word without substance and cannot endure; and that subjects owe sovereigns unqualified obedience in all matters where obedience does not conflict with the Laws of God. To know the whole of civil duty, we need only know what those Laws of God are. Without that knowledge a man cannot tell whether a command of the civil power conflicts with God's law; and so he either offends the Divine Majesty by excessive civil obedience or, fearing to offend God, transgresses the commands of the Common-wealth. To avoid both these dangers, we must know the divine laws. And since knowledge of every law depends on knowledge of the sovereign power, I shall now say something about the KINGDOM OF GOD.
“God is King, let the Earth rejoice,” says the Psalmist (Psal. 96. 1). And again, “God is King though the Nations be angry; and he that sits on the Cherubim, though the earth be moved” (Psal. 98. 1). Whether they wish it or not, men must always be subject to divine power. By denying God's existence or providence, men may cast off their ease, but not their yoke. Yet to call this power of God—which reaches not only men but beasts, plants, and inanimate bodies—a kingdom is to use the word metaphorically. Only one who governs subjects by his word, promising rewards to those who obey and threatening punishment to those who do not, can properly be said to reign. The subjects of God's kingdom, then, are not inanimate bodies or irrational creatures, which cannot understand precepts as his; nor atheists or those who deny that God cares about human actions, since they acknowledge no word as his and hope for no reward or fear any threat from him. Those who believe in a God who governs the world, has given precepts to mankind, and has set forth rewards and punishments are God's subjects; all the rest are to be understood as enemies.
To rule by words requires making those words manifestly known; otherwise they are not laws. A sufficient and clear promulgation, removing the excuse of ignorance, belongs to the nature of law. For human laws there is only one way of doing this: proclamation, or promulgation by a human voice. But God declares his laws in three ways: by the dictates of natural reason, by revelation, and by the voice of a man whom, through miracles, he has made credible to others. Hence there arise three kinds of God's word—the rational, the perceptible, and the prophetic—and three corresponding ways of hearing: right reason, supernatural perception, and faith. No universal laws have been delivered by supernatural perception, consisting in revelation or inspiration, because God speaks in that manner only to particular persons, and says different things to different people.
A Twofold Kingdom of God, Natural and Prophetic. From the distinction between the other two kinds of God's word, rational and prophetic, we may attribute to God a twofold kingdom, natural and prophetic. In the natural kingdom he governs, by the natural dictates of right reason, all mankind who acknowledge his providence. In the prophetic kingdom, having chosen one particular nation, the Jews, for his subjects, he governed them and no others, not only by natural reason but by positive laws given through the mouths of his holy prophets. In this chapter I intend to speak of the natural kingdom of God.
The Right of God's Sovereignty Derives from His Omnipotence. The Right of Nature by which God reigns over men and punishes those who break his laws derives not from his having created them, as though he demanded obedience in gratitude for his benefits, but from his irresistible power. I have already shown how sovereign right arises from covenant. To show how the same right may arise from nature, it is enough to show a case in which it is never surrendered. Since all men by nature had a right to everything, each had a right to reign over all the rest. But since they could not enforce this right, the safety of each required them to lay it aside and, by common consent, appoint men with sovereign authority to rule and defend them. Had there been a man of irresistible power, however, there would have been no reason why he should not use that power to rule and defend both himself and them as he saw fit. Thus dominion over all men belongs naturally to those whose power is irresistible by virtue of their superior power. Consequently it is from this power that the kingdom over men and the right to afflict them as he pleases belong naturally to God Almighty—not as creator and benefactor, but as omnipotent. And though punishment is due only for sin, because the word means affliction for sin, the right to afflict does not always derive from men's sin, but from God's power.
The question “Why do evil men often prosper, while good men suffer adversity?” was much disputed by the ancients. It is the same as our question, “By what right does God distribute the prosperity and adversity of this life?” Its difficulty has shaken faith in divine providence not only among ordinary people but among philosophers and even saints. “How good,” says David, “is the God of Israel to those who are upright in heart; and yet my feet were almost gone, my steps had nearly slipped; for I was grieved at the wicked when I saw the ungodly prosper so.” And how earnestly Job argues with God over the many afflictions he suffered despite his righteousness! In Job's case, God himself settles the question, not by arguments drawn from Job's sin but from his own power. Job's friends inferred sin from his afflictions, while Job defended himself in the knowledge of his innocence. God himself takes up the matter and justifies the affliction by arguments from his power, such as “Where were you when I laid the foundations of the earth?” In doing so he both approves Job's innocence and rebukes his friends' erroneous doctrine. The words of our Savior concerning the man born blind accord with this teaching: “Neither has this man sinned, nor his fathers; but this happened so that the works of God might be made manifest in him.” And although it is said that “Death entered into the world by sin”—meaning that if Adam had never sinned, he would never have died, that is, his soul would never have been separated from his body—it does not follow that God could not justly have afflicted him even without sin, just as he afflicts other living creatures that cannot sin.
Having spoken of the right of God's sovereignty as grounded solely in nature, we must next consider the divine laws, or dictates of natural reason. These concern either the natural duties of one man toward another or the honor naturally due to our divine sovereign. The first are the same Laws of Nature that I discussed in the 14. and 15. chapters of this treatise: equity, justice, mercy, humility, and the other moral virtues. What remains is to consider what precepts natural reason alone, without any other word of God, dictates to men concerning the honor and worship of the Divine Majesty.
Honor consists in an inward thought and judgment of another's power and goodness. To honor God, therefore, is to think as highly of his power and goodness as possible. The outward signs of that judgment, appearing in men's words and actions, are called worship; this is one part of what the Latin word Cultus means. For Cultus properly and invariably signifies labor bestowed upon something in the hope of deriving benefit from it. The things from which we derive benefit either are subject to us, so that the profit they yield follows naturally from our labor, or are not subject to us, but respond to our labor according to their own wills. In the first sense, labor bestowed on the earth is called cultivation, and the education of children a cultivation of their minds. In the second sense, where men's wills are won to our purposes not by force but by pleasing them, the word means courting: winning favor through good offices, such as praise, acknowledging their power, and whatever else pleases those from whom we expect some benefit. This is properly worship. In this sense Publicola means a worshipper of the people, and Cultus Dei the worship of God.
From inward honor, consisting in a judgment of power and goodness, arise three Passions: love, which relates to goodness, and hope and fear, which relate to power. There arise also three parts of outward worship: praise, magnification, and blessing. Goodness is the subject of praise; power and its effect, felicity, are the subjects of magnification and blessing. Praise and magnification may be expressed in words or actions: in words when we say a man is good or great; in actions when we thank him for his bounty and obey his power. The belief in another's happiness can be expressed only in words.
Some signs of honor, both attributes and actions, are naturally such: among attributes, good, just, generous, and the like; among actions, prayers, thanks, and obedience. Others derive their meaning from human institution or custom and are honorable in some times and places, dishonorable in others, and indifferent in still others. Such are gestures of greeting, prayer, and thanksgiving, used differently in different times and places. The former is natural worship; the latter, arbitrary worship.
Arbitrary worship, in turn, has two kinds: commanded and voluntary. It is commanded when it takes the form required by the one worshipped, and voluntary when it takes the form the worshipper thinks fitting. When worship is commanded, it is not the words or gestures but the obedience that constitutes the worship. When it is voluntary, its character depends on the judgment of its spectators: if the words or actions by which we intend honor appear to them ridiculous or insulting, they are not worship. For a sign is not a sign to the one who gives it, but to the one to whom it is made—that is, to the spectator.
Again, worship may be public or private. Public worship is what a Common-wealth performs as one person; private worship is what a private person offers. Public worship is voluntary as regards the whole Common-wealth, but not as regards particular men. Private worship is free in secret, but in the sight of the multitude it is never without some restraint, whether from laws or from men's opinions; such restraint is contrary to the nature of liberty.
Among men, the end of worship is power. When a man sees another worshipped, he supposes that person powerful and is more ready to obey him, thereby increasing his power. But God has no ends. The worship we render him proceeds from our duty and is directed, so far as our capacity allows, by the rules of honor that reason tells the weak to observe toward men more powerful than themselves—in hope of benefit, in fear of harm, or in gratitude for good already received.
Plain English translation
Mouseia’s complete Plain English edition, made independently and directly from the complete 1651 English text (introduction, forty-seven chapters, review and conclusion). Hobbes’s marginal summaries are omitted.
Of God's Kingdom by Nature
I have already given enough proof of four points. The condition of mere nature, or absolute liberty, for people who are neither sovereigns nor subjects, is anarchy and war. The rules that guide people away from that condition are the Laws of Nature. A Common-wealth without Sovereign Power is just an empty word and cannot survive. Subjects owe their Sovereigns unconditional obedience in everything that does not conflict with the Laws of God. To understand civic duty fully, we now need to know what those Laws of God are. Otherwise a person who receives an order from the civil authority cannot tell whether it conflicts with God's Law. Too much civil obedience might offend God. Or fear of offending God might lead the person to disobey the Common-wealth. To avoid both dangers, we need to know the divine Laws. And since knowing any law depends on knowing the Sovereign Power behind it, I will next discuss the Kingdom of God.
“God is King, let the Earth rejoice,” says the psalmist (Psal. 96. 1). And again: “God is King though the Nations be angry; and he that sits on the Cherubim, though the earth be moved” (Psal. 98. 1). Whether they want to or not, people are always subject to God's power. By denying God's existence or providence, they may cast off the comfort of belief, but not his rule over them. Still, calling this power of God a kingdom is a metaphor when it extends over animals, plants, and lifeless bodies as well as people. Properly speaking, someone reigns only when he governs subjects by his word. He promises rewards to those who obey it and threatens punishment for those who do not. Thus lifeless bodies and unreasoning creatures are not subjects in God's Kingdom: they cannot understand instructions as his. Nor are atheists, or people who believe God takes no interest in human actions, his subjects in this sense. They acknowledge no word as his and expect no rewards or punishments from him. Those who believe God governs the world, has given people rules, and has offered them rewards and punishments are God's subjects. All the others must be regarded as enemies.
Rule by words requires that those words be clearly made known; otherwise they are not laws. A law must be announced clearly enough that ignorance is no excuse. Human laws are announced in one way: proclamation by a human voice. But God declares his Laws in three ways: through the dictates of natural reason; through revelation; and through the voice of a person whose miracles have led others to trust him. Accordingly, the Word of God has three forms: rational, directly perceived, and prophetic. These correspond to three ways of hearing: right reason, supernatural perception, and faith. No universal Laws have been given through supernatural perception, which involves revelation or inspiration. God speaks in that way only to particular people and says different things to different people.
A twofold Kingdom of God, natural and prophetic. The difference between the other two kinds of God's Word, rational and prophetic, lets us distinguish two kinds of his Kingdom. In his natural Kingdom, he governs everyone who acknowledges his providence through the natural dictates of right reason. In his prophetic Kingdom, he chose a particular nation, the Jews, as his subjects. He governed them alone, not only by natural reason but also by specific Laws spoken through his holy prophets. In this chapter I will discuss God's natural Kingdom.
The Right of God's Sovereignty comes from his unlimited power. God's Right of Nature to rule people and punish those who break his Laws does not come from his having created them, as though he demanded obedience in return for his gifts. It comes from his irresistible power. I have already shown how Sovereign Right arises from a pact. To show how the same Right can arise from nature, I need only show when that Right is never given up. By nature everyone had a Right to everything, including the Right to rule everyone else. But no one could enforce that Right. For their own safety, people therefore gave it up and jointly appointed people with Sovereign Authority to rule and defend them. If someone had possessed irresistible power, however, there would have been no reason for him not to rule and defend both himself and others as he saw fit. Thus anyone with irresistible power naturally has dominion over everyone because his power surpasses theirs. It is through that power that Almighty God naturally has his Kingdom over people and the Right to afflict them as he pleases. He has it not because he is their gracious creator but because he is all-powerful. Punishment is due only for sin, since the word means suffering imposed for sin. But the Right to cause suffering does not always come from a person's sin; it comes from God's power.
Ancient writers debated why evil people often prosper while good people suffer. That is the same as asking by what Right God distributes prosperity and hardship in this life. This difficult question has shaken the faith of ordinary people, philosophers, and even saints in divine providence. David says, “How good is the God of Israel to those who are upright in heart; and yet I almost lost my footing and nearly slipped, for I was troubled by the wicked when I saw the ungodly prosper.” And Job protested earnestly to God about his many sufferings despite his righteousness. In Job's case God himself settles the question by pointing to his own power, not to Job's sin. Job's friends took his suffering as evidence that he had sinned. Job defended himself on the strength of his clear conscience. God then took up the matter. With arguments from his power, such as “Where were you when I laid the foundations of the earth,” he justified Job's suffering, upheld Job's innocence, and rejected his friends' mistaken doctrine. Our Savior made a similar judgment about the man born blind: “Neither this man nor his parents sinned; but this happened so that the works of God might be revealed in him.” It is also said that “death entered the world through sin.” This means that if Adam had never sinned, he would never have died, or had his soul separated from his body. But it does not follow that God could not justly have caused him suffering without any sin, just as God causes suffering to other living creatures that cannot sin.
Having explained how God's Right of Sovereignty rests on nature alone, we must next consider the divine Laws, or dictates of natural reason. They concern either people's natural duties to one another or the honor naturally owed to our divine Sovereign. The first are the Laws of Nature already discussed in Chapters 14. and 15. of this book: equity, justice, mercy, humility, and the other moral virtues. What remains is to consider what natural reason alone, without any other word from God, tells people about honoring and worshiping the divine Majesty.
Honor begins with an inward belief about another person's power and goodness. To honor God is therefore to think as highly as possible of his power and goodness. The outward signs of this belief in our words and actions are called worship. Worship is one part of what the Latin word cultus means. Strictly and consistently, cultus means the work someone does on something in order to gain a benefit from it. Some things we benefit from are under our control. Their benefits follow naturally from the work we put into them. Other things are not under our control; they respond to our efforts as they choose. In the first case, work on the earth is called cultivation, and educating children cultivates their minds. In the second, when we seek to influence people's choices through courtesy rather than force, cultus means courting their favor through helpful acts. These include praise, acknowledging their power, and doing whatever pleases people from whom we hope to benefit. This is worship in the proper sense. Thus Publicola is understood to mean someone who courts the people, while cultus Dei means the worship of God.
Inward honor, or belief in someone's power and goodness, gives rise to three Passions. Love concerns goodness; hope and fear concern power. It also gives rise to three kinds of outward worship: praise, magnifying, and blessing. Praise concerns goodness. Magnifying and blessing concern power and its result, happiness. Praise and magnifying can be expressed in words and actions. We use words when we call someone good or great. We act when we thank him for his generosity or obey his power. But we can express our belief that another person is happy only in words.
Some signs of honor, both descriptions and actions, are naturally signs of it. Descriptions such as good, just, and generous are examples; so are actions such as prayer, thanks, and obedience. Other signs depend on human convention or custom. At some times and places they honor someone; elsewhere they dishonor someone or have no special meaning. Gestures used for greeting, prayer, and thanksgiving vary this way. The first kind is natural worship; the second is worship set by choice.
Worship set by choice has two forms: commanded and voluntary. It is commanded when the person worshiped requires it, and voluntary when the worshiper chooses it. In commanded worship, the worship lies in obedience, not in the words or gestures. In voluntary worship, it depends on what the onlookers think. If the words or actions intended as honor look ridiculous or insulting to them, they are not worship. A sign has meaning for the person who receives or observes it, not simply for the person who makes it.
There is also public and private worship. Public worship is what a Common-wealth does as one person. Private worship is what an individual does. Public worship is freely chosen by the Common-wealth as a whole but not by each individual. Private worship is freely chosen in secret. In public, however, it always faces some restraint from laws or public opinion, which is the opposite of liberty.
Among people, the purpose of worship is power. When someone sees another person worshiped, he assumes that person is powerful and becomes more willing to obey him. This increases that person's power. But God pursues no ends. We worship him out of duty. The rules for doing so come from our ability to honor him and from what reason tells weaker people to do toward more powerful people: to hope for benefits, fear harm, or give thanks for benefits already received.