Jean-Jacques Rousseau · Complete work
Book II, Chapter 12
Book II, Chapter 12 of 49. Read it here for reference, or continue through the entire work without leaving the reader.
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Division des Loix.
Pour ordonner le tout, ou donner la meilleure forme possible à la chose publique, il y a diverses rélations à considérer. Premierement l’action du corps entier agissant sur lui-même, c’est-à-dire le rapport du tout au tout, ou du Souverain à l’État, & ce rapport est composé de celui des termes intermédiaires, comme nous le verrons ci-après.
Les loix qui reglent ce rapport portent le nom de loix politiques, & s’appellent aussi loix fondamentales, non sans quelque raison si ces loix sont sages. Car s’il n’y a dans chaque État qu’une bonne maniere de l’ordonner, le peuple qui l’a trouvée doit s’y tenir: mais si l’ordre établi est mauvais, pourquoi prendroit-on pour fondamentales des loix qui l’empêchent d’être bon? D’ailleurs, en tout état de cause, un peuple est toujours le maitre de changer ses loix, mêmes les meilleures; car s’il lui plait de se faire mal à lui-même, qui est-ce qui a droit de l’en empêcher?
La seconde rélation est celle des membres entre-eux, ou avec le corps entier, & ce rapport doit être au premier égard aussi petit & au second aussi grand qu’il est possible: en sorte que chaque Citoyen soit dans une parfaite indépendance de tous les autres, & dans une excessive dépendance de la Cité; ce qui se fait toujours par les mêmes moyens; car il n’y a que la force de l’Etat qui fasse la liberté de ses membres. C’est de ce deuxieme rapport que naissent les loix civiles.
On peut considérer une troisieme sorte de rélation entre l’homme & la loi, savoir celle de la désobéissance à la peine, & celle-ci donne lieu à l’établissement des loix criminelles, qui dans le fond sont moins une espece particuliere de loix, que la sanction de toutes les autres.
A ces trois sortes de loix, il s’en joint une quatrieme, la plus importante de toutes; qui ne se grave ni sur le marbre ni sur l’airain, mais dans les cœurs des citoyens; qui fait la véritable constitution de l’Etat; qui prend tous les jours de nouvelles forces; qui, lorsque les autres loix vieillissent ou s’éteignent, les ranime ou les supplée, conserve un peuple dans l’esprit de son institution, & substitue insensiblement la force de l’habitude à celle de l’autorité. Je parle des mœurs, des coutumes, & sur-tout de l’opinion; partie inconnue à nos politiques, mais de laquelle dépend le succès de toutes les autres: partie dont le grand Législateur s’occupe en secret, tandis qu’il paroit se borner à des réglemens particuliers qui ne sont que le ceintre de la voûte, dont les mœurs, plus lentes à naitre, forment enfin l’inébranlable Clef.
Entre ces diverses Classes, les loix politiques, qui constituent la forme du Gouvernement, sont la seule relative à mon sujet.
Fin du Livre Deuxieme.
Musean translation
Mouseia’s complete machine-assisted Musean translation, made directly from the complete French text of the 1762 edition, all four books and the appendix for fidelity, the author’s force and cadence, and modern clarity.
Division of the Laws.
To put the whole in order, or give the public body the best possible form, there are several relations to consider. First, the action of the entire body upon itself, that is, the relation of the whole to the whole, or of the sovereign to the State; this relation is composed of the relations between the intermediate terms, as we shall see below.
The laws governing this relation bear the name of political laws, and are also called fundamental laws, with some reason if they are wise. For if there is only one good way of ordering each State, the people who have found it should hold to it; but if the established order is bad, why should laws that prevent it from becoming good be considered fundamental? Besides, in any case, a people is always master of changing its laws, even the best of them; for if it pleases the people to do itself harm, who has the right to prevent it?
The second relation is that of the members to one another or to the entire body; this relation must be as slight as possible in the first respect and as great as possible in the second, so that each citizen is perfectly independent of all the others and deeply dependent on the city. Both are always accomplished by the same means, for only the strength of the State makes its members free. From this second relation arise civil laws.
A third kind of relation may be considered, between man and law, namely that of disobedience to punishment. This gives rise to the establishment of criminal laws, which are at bottom less a distinct kind of law than the sanction of all the others.
To these three kinds of laws a fourth is joined, the most important of all. It is engraved neither on marble nor on bronze, but in the hearts of citizens; it forms the true constitution of the State; it gains new strength every day; when the other laws grow old or die out, it revives or replaces them, preserves a people in the spirit of its founding, and imperceptibly substitutes the force of habit for that of authority. I speak of morals, customs, and above all opinion: a part unknown to our political thinkers, but on which the success of all the others depends. This is the part with which the great legislator secretly concerns himself, while appearing to confine himself to particular regulations that are only the arch's temporary framework; customs, slower to arise, ultimately form its immovable keystone.
Among these different classes, political laws, which constitute the form of government, are the only ones relevant to my subject.
End of the Second Book.
Plain English translation
Mouseia’s complete Plain English edition, made independently and directly from the complete French text of the 1762 edition, all four books and the appendix.
Division of the Laws.
To organize the whole, or give the public body the best possible form, we must consider several relationships. The first is the action of the entire body upon itself: the relationship of the whole to the whole, or of the sovereign to the state. This relationship is made up of the relationships between the intermediate terms, as we will see later.
The laws governing this relationship are called political laws. They are also called fundamental laws, with some reason if they are wise. If each state has only one good way to be organized, the people who have found it should keep it. But if the existing arrangement is bad, why treat as fundamental laws that prevent it from becoming good? Besides, whatever the situation, a people always has the power to change its laws, even the best ones. If it chooses to harm itself, who has the right to stop it?
The second relationship is between members, or between each member and the entire body. This relationship should be as small as possible in the first case and as large as possible in the second. Each citizen should thus be fully independent of every other citizen and strongly dependent on the city. The same means always bring about both conditions, for only the strength of the state makes its members free. Civil laws arise from this second relationship.
We can consider a third kind of relationship between people and the law: the relationship between disobedience and punishment. This leads to criminal laws, which are at bottom not so much a separate kind of law as the enforcement of all the others.
A fourth kind joins these three, and it is the most important of all. It is engraved neither on marble nor on bronze, but in the hearts of citizens. It forms the state's real constitution, gains new strength every day, and revives or replaces the other laws when they grow old or die out. It keeps a people faithful to the spirit of its founding and gradually replaces the force of authority with the force of habit. I mean ways of life, customs, and above all public opinion. Our political thinkers neglect this part, though the success of all the other parts depends on it. The great legislator works on it in secret while seeming to focus only on specific regulations. Those regulations merely support the arch while customs, which take longer to develop, eventually form its unshakable keystone.
Of these different classes, political laws, which establish the form of government, are the only ones relevant to my subject.
End of Book Two.