Book VIII, 1340b–1342b

as with the so-called Mixolydian mode; at others their minds are softened, as with the relaxed modes; at another they are most of all brought into a moderate and settled state, as the Dorian alone among the modes seems to do; into an inspired state,1340b5 the Phrygian brings them. For those who have studied this education philosophically speak well on these matters: they draw the evidence for their arguments from the facts themselves.) The same holds also for rhythms. (Some have a more settled character, others a stirring one; and among the latter some have more vulgar10 movements, others more liberal ones.) From these considerations, then, it is evident that music can impart a certain quality to the character of the soul; and if it can do this, it is clear that the young must be introduced to it and educated in it. Suited to the nature of this age is instruction15 in music. For the young, because of their age, willingly endure nothing without sweetness, and music is by nature among the things that have sweetness. There also seems to be a certain kinship with modes and rhythms. Hence many of the wise say, some that the soul is a harmony, others that it possesses harmony.

1340b20Whether they should learn by singing and playing themselves or not, as was questioned earlier, must now be discussed. It is certainly not unclear that taking part in the activities oneself makes a great difference to the sort of person one becomes. For it is among the impossible or difficult things for those who have not taken part25 in the activities to become sound judges. At the same time, children must have some occupation, and Archytas's rattle must be thought a good invention: people give it to little children so that, occupied with it, they will break none of the things in the house; for the young cannot keep still. This, then, is suitable for30 infant children, while education is a rattle for older young people. That music must be taught in such a way that the learners also take part in its activities is evident from considerations of this kind. It is not difficult to distinguish what is appropriate and what inappropriate at each age, or to answer those who say that the pursuit35 is vulgar. For, first, since they must take part in the activities for the sake of judging, they should therefore engage in them while young, but when older leave the activities aside and be able to judge what is noble and enjoy it rightly because of the learning they acquired in youth.40 As for the reproach some make, that music makes people vulgar, it is not difficult to answer it by considering how far participation in the activities should go for those whose virtue1341a1 is being developed for civic life,

and what kinds of melodies and rhythms they should take part in, and further, on what instruments they should learn; for this too is likely to make a difference. The answer to the reproach lies in these matters: nothing prevents certain forms1341a5 of music from producing the result mentioned. It is evident, then, that learning it must neither hinder their later activities nor make the body vulgar and useless for military and civic exercises, for some uses now and for others later.

This would be achieved1341a10 in their learning if they labored neither at what is directed toward professional contests nor at the astonishing and elaborate feats that have now entered the contests and, from the contests, education; rather, they should practice even the less elaborate things only until they can enjoy noble melodies and rhythms,15 and not merely what is common to music, as do some other animals, and also the mass of slaves and children. From this it is clear, too, what instruments should be used. Neither flutes nor any other professional instrument, such as the cithara or any other of that kind, should be introduced into education, but20 only those that will make them good listeners, whether to musical education or to education of another kind. Further, the flute does not express character, but rather excites religious frenzy, so it should be used on occasions when listening can bring about purification rather than learning. Let us add that flute-playing has another feature contrary to25 education: it prevents the use of speech. Hence earlier generations rightly rejected its use by the young and by free people, although they had used it at first. For, as they gained more leisure through prosperity and became more high-minded in their pursuit of virtue, and both earlier30 and after the Persian Wars were filled with pride by their achievements, they took up every kind of learning, making no distinctions but seeking it out. Hence they also introduced flute-playing among the subjects of learning. Indeed, in Lacedaemon a certain sponsor of a chorus himself played the flute for it, and in Athens it became so customary that roughly the35 majority of free people took part in it. This is evident from the tablet Thrasippus dedicated when he sponsored a chorus for Ecphantides. Later it was rejected through experience of the practice itself, when people could better judge what contributed to virtue and what did not. The same happened with many of the ancient instruments,40 such as pectides and barbitoi, and those directed toward giving pleasure to listeners through their players: seven-sided and triangular instruments and1341b1 sambucae,

and all that require skilled manual knowledge. The story told by the ancients about flutes is also reasonable. For they say that Athena invented flutes and then threw them away. It is not unreasonable to say that the goddess did this also because1341b5 she was displeased by the disfigurement of her face. Nevertheless, it is more likely that she did so because instruction in flute-playing contributes nothing to the mind, while we attribute knowledge and art to Athena. Since we reject professional education both in instruments and in performance10 (by professional we mean education directed toward contests, for in these the performer practices not for the sake of his own virtue but for the pleasure of the listeners, and a vulgar pleasure at that; hence we judge the activity to be not for free people but more suited to hired labor, and indeed the performers become vulgar, for it is a bad15 aim that they make their end: the spectator, being vulgar, habitually alters the music, so that he gives a certain character both to the professionals themselves who practice for him and to their bodies, through their movements),

we must now consider the modes and rhythms,1341b20 and whether all modes and all rhythms should be used for education, or distinctions should be made; then, whether we shall lay down the same distinction for those who labor at music for education, or whether some other, third distinction is needed. Since we see that music consists of melody-making and rhythms, we must not fail to understand, in the case of each,25 what power it has for education, and whether music with good melody should be preferred to music with good rhythm. Believing, then, that both some present-day musicians and those philosophers who have experience of musical education say many sound things on these matters, we shall leave30 precise examination of each detail to those who wish to seek it from them; for now let us make distinctions in the manner of a lawgiver, stating only the outlines of these matters.

Since we accept the division of melodies made by some philosophers, who distinguish those that express character, those that prompt action, and those that inspire ecstasy,1341b35 and assign to each of these the kind of mode naturally suited to it, a different one to each division; and since we say that music should be used not for one benefit alone but for several (for education and for purification—what we mean by purification we state simply for now, but in our discussion of40 poetry we shall speak of it again more clearly—and third, for the occupation of leisure, for relaxation and for rest from exertion),

1342a1it is evident that all modes should be used, but not all in the same way: for education those that most express character, but for listening to others perform, those that prompt action and those that inspire ecstasy as well. For the5 feeling that affects certain souls strongly is present in all, though it differs in being weaker or stronger: pity and fear, for example, and also ecstasy. Indeed, some people are possessed by this disturbance; yet we see from sacred melodies that, when they use the frenzied10 melodies that excite the soul, they become settled, as though they had received healing and purification. This same experience must also come to those prone to pity and fear, and to the emotional in general, and to others insofar as each has a share in such feelings; all must undergo a certain purification and be relieved15 with pleasure. Likewise, melodies that prompt action also afford people harmless joy. Hence competitors who practice theatrical music should be allowed to use such modes and such melodies. Since spectators are of two kinds, one free and educated, the other20 vulgar, consisting of artisans, hired laborers, and others of that sort, contests and spectacles must also be provided for these people for their rest. Just as their souls are distorted from their natural condition, so there are deviations among the modes, and among melodies those that are strained and overcolored.25 What is naturally congenial gives pleasure to each; hence performers competing before this sort of spectator must be allowed to use some such kind of music. For education, however, as has been said, we should use melodies that express character and modes of that kind. Such30 is the Dorian, as we said earlier; but we must also accept any other that those who share in philosophical study and musical education approve for us. Socrates in the Republic is wrong to retain the Phrygian alone along with the Dorian, especially when he has rejected1342b1 the flute among the instruments.

For the Phrygian has the same power among modes as the flute among instruments: both excite religious frenzy and emotion. Poetry makes this clear. For every form of Bacchic frenzy and every such disturbance1342b5 is expressed most of all, among instruments, by flutes; and among modes, these find their appropriate expression in Phrygian melodies. Poetry makes this clear: the dithyramb, for instance, is generally agreed to be Phrygian. Those versed in this subject give many examples of it, including the fact that Philoxenus tried, in10 the Dorian mode, to compose his dithyramb, the Mysians, but could not: the nature of the composition itself drove him back into the Phrygian, the appropriate mode. About the Dorian all agree that it is the most settled and has above all a courageous character. Further, since we praise the mean between extremes15 and say that it should be pursued, and the Dorian has this nature in relation to the other modes, it is evident that Dorian melodies are more appropriate for the education of the young.

There are two aims: what is possible and what is appropriate. For each group should practice especially what is possible and what is appropriate for them.1342b20 These too are determined by age. For example, those worn out by time cannot easily sing the strained modes; rather, nature suggests the relaxed modes to people of that age. Hence some musicians rightly reproach Socrates on this point too, because he rejected the relaxed modes25 for amusement, taking them to be intoxicating—not in the sense of the power of intoxication, for intoxication produces rather a Bacchic frenzy, but in the sense of being enfeebled. Therefore, with a view also to the age that will come, that of older people, one must engage with modes and melodies of this kind; and further,30 with any mode that is appropriate to the age of children because it can possess both orderliness and educational value, as the Lydian seems to do most of all among the modes. It is clear, then, that these three limits must be set for education: the mean, the possible, and the appropriate.

for example, with what is called the Mixolydian mode. With other modes their minds become softer, as with the relaxed modes. Another especially gives them a balanced and steady state of mind. The Dorian seems to be the only mode that does this. They become ecstatic,1340b5 however, with the Phrygian. Those who have studied this kind of education explain these things well. They take the evidence for their arguments from the facts themselves). The same holds for rhythms. Some have a more settled character, others a more active one. Of the active rhythms, some have coarser10 movements, others movements more suited to free people. These facts make it clear that music can give the soul's character a particular quality. If it can do this, then clearly young people should be introduced to music and educated in it. It suits the nature of people at this age to learn15 music. Because they are young, they won't willingly put up with anything that gives them no pleasure, and music is naturally pleasant. We also seem to have a certain kinship with modes and rhythms. This is why many wise thinkers say either that the soul is a harmony or that it has harmony.

1340b20We must now discuss the question raised earlier: should the young learn by singing and playing instruments themselves, or not? Clearly, taking part in the actual performance makes a great difference to the kind of people they become. It is impossible, or at least difficult, for those who haven't taken part25 in the performance to become good judges. Besides, children need something to occupy them. We should consider Archytas's rattle a good invention. People give it to small children so that using it will keep them from breaking things around the house. The young can't keep still. This rattle suits30 infants, while education is a rattle for older children. These points make it clear that music should be taught in a way that includes performing it. It isn't hard to distinguish what suits each age and what doesn't, or to answer those who say that studying music35 is a menial activity. First, since people must take part in performing to learn to judge, they should perform when young, but stop performing when they grow older. Their learning in youth should enable them to judge what is noble and enjoy it in the right way.40 As for the criticism some people make that music turns people into menial workers, it isn't hard to answer. We need to consider how much performing is appropriate for people whose virtue1341a1 is being developed for civic life,

and which melodies and rhythms they should perform. We also need to consider which instruments they should learn to play. This, too, is likely to make a difference. These points provide the answer to the criticism. There is nothing to prevent certain forms1341a5 of music from having the effect described. So it is clear that learning music must neither get in the way of people's later activities nor make their bodies those of menial workers, unfit for military and civic training, whether for use now or for use later.

This could be achieved1341a10 in learning if students didn't work at the skills needed for professional competitions, or at the dazzling and elaborate feats that have now entered competitions and passed from competitions into education. Even with less elaborate performances, they should go only far enough to be able to enjoy noble melodies and rhythms,15 not just what is common to all music. Some other animals, and also masses of slaves and children, enjoy only that common element. These points also make it clear which instruments should be used. We shouldn't introduce pipes into education, or any other professional instrument, such as the concert lyre or anything else of that kind. We should use20 only instruments that will make the students good listeners, whether in musical education or in other education. Besides, the pipe isn't an instrument for building character; it is more an instrument of frenzy. So it should be used on occasions when attending a performance can bring purification rather than learning. We should add that another feature counts against it in25 education: playing the pipe prevents the player from speaking. This is why earlier generations were right to reject its use by the young and by free people, even though they had used it at first. Their prosperity gave them more leisure and made them more ambitious about virtue. Both earlier30 and after the Persian Wars, their achievements filled them with pride. They took up every kind of learning, making no distinctions but seeking them all out. This is why they included pipe playing in their studies. In Lacedaemon, a chorus sponsor even played the pipe for the chorus himself. And in Athens it became so widespread that roughly the35 majority of free people took part in it. The painting Thrasippus dedicated after sponsoring a chorus for Ecphantides makes this clear. Later, experience led people to reject pipe playing, as they became better able to judge what contributed to virtue and what didn't. They also rejected many old instruments,40 such as pectis harps and barbitos lyres, and instruments aimed at giving pleasure to those who heard the players: seven-sided and triangular harps and1341b1 sambucas,

and all instruments that require skilled manual technique. The ancient story about pipes also makes sense. They say that Athena invented pipes and then threw them away. It isn't wrong to say that the goddess did this because1341b5 she disliked how they distorted her face. But the more likely reason is that learning to play the pipe does nothing for the mind, and we attribute knowledge and skill to Athena. We reject professional training in instruments and performance.10 (By professional training we mean training for competitions. Here the performer works not for his own virtue but for his listeners' pleasure, and a coarse pleasure at that. So we judge the activity unfit for free people and more like hired labor. It does turn performers into menial workers. It is a bad15 goal they set themselves. The audience is coarse and tends to change the music. So it shapes the character of the professionals who practice to please it. Through their movements, it also shapes their bodies.)

So we must now examine modes and rhythms.1341b20 Should all modes and all rhythms be used in education, or should we distinguish between them? Then, for those who work at music as part of their education, should we make the same distinction, or do we need a third, different one? We see that music consists of melody and rhythm. We must understand25 how each affects education, and whether we should prefer music with good melody or music with good rhythm. We think that some present-day musicians, and those philosophers who have experience of musical education, say many sound things about these matters. So we will leave30 anyone who wants a detailed account of each point to seek it from them. For now, let's distinguish the kinds as a lawgiver would, giving only their general outlines.

We accept the division of melodies made by some philosophers. They classify some as shaping character, some as prompting action, and some as producing ecstatic excitement.1341b35 They also assign to each of these classes the modes whose nature suits it, a different mode for each class. We say that music should be used not for just one benefit, but for several. It serves education and purification. We use the word purification here without elaborating, but in our discussion of40 poetry we will explain it more clearly. Third, music serves the spending of leisure, relaxation, and rest from strain.

1342a1So clearly we should use all the modes, but not all in the same way. For education we should use those that do most to shape character. For listening to others perform, we should also use those that prompt action or produce ecstatic excitement. An5 emotion that affects some souls strongly is present in all souls, though to a greater or lesser degree. Pity and fear are examples, and so is ecstatic excitement. Some people are possessed by this excitement. We see from sacred melodies that when these people hear frenzied10 melodies that stir the soul, they settle down as though they had received treatment and purification. The same must happen to people who are prone to pity or fear, or to emotion generally, and to everyone else to the extent that each shares in such feelings. Everyone must experience some purification and feel relief15 with pleasure. In the same way, melodies that prompt action give people harmless enjoyment. So competitors who perform music in the theater should use modes and melodies of this kind. Audiences are of two kinds: one is free and educated, the other20 coarse, made up of manual workers, hired laborers and others like them. We must provide competitions and performances for these people too, to let them rest. Just as their souls have been twisted away from their natural state, there are also distorted modes and melodies that are tense and unnaturally colored.25 What gives each group pleasure is what naturally suits it. So performers should be allowed to use music of this sort for audiences of this kind. For education, however, as we have said, we should use melodies that shape character and the corresponding modes. One such mode30 is the Dorian, as we said earlier. We should also accept any other mode recommended by people who combine philosophical study with musical education. But Socrates in the Republic is wrong to keep only the Phrygian mode alongside the Dorian, especially after rejecting1342b1 the pipe among instruments.

The Phrygian has the same effect among modes as the pipe has among instruments. Both produce frenzy and strong emotion. Poetry shows this. All frenzy in the worship of Bacchus and all excitement of that sort1342b5 find their main instrument in pipes. Among modes, Phrygian melodies give these things their proper expression. Poetry shows this: The dithyramb, for example, is generally agreed to be Phrygian. Experts in this field give many examples. Among others, they say that Philoxenus tried, in10 the Dorian mode, to compose his dithyramb, The Mysians, but couldn't. The nature of the composition itself drove him back into the Phrygian, the mode that suited it. Everyone agrees that the Dorian is the steadiest mode and has the most courageous character. Besides, we praise the middle between extremes15 and say we should pursue it. Since the Dorian has this character compared with the other modes, it is clear that Dorian melodies are more suitable for teaching the young.

There are two aims: what is possible and what is suitable. Each person should use what is possible and what suits them.1342b20 These things also depend on age. For example, people weakened by age find it hard to sing the tense modes. Nature suggests the relaxed modes for people of that age. So some musical experts are also right to criticize Socrates on this point. He rejected the relaxed modes25 for amusement, treating them as intoxicating. This wasn't because they have the effect of drunkenness. Drunkenness produces religious frenzy instead. It was because they are enfeebled. So, with a view to the later stage of life, old age, we should also study modes and melodies of this sort. Further,30 we should study any mode that suits childhood because it can provide both orderly behavior and education. The Lydian seems to do this more than any other mode. Clearly, then, we should set these three standards for education: the middle, the possible and the suitable.