Aristotle · Complete work
Chapter 6
Chapter 6 of 26. Read it here for reference, or continue through the entire work without leaving the reader.
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περὶ μὲν οὖν τῆς ἐν ἑξαμέτροις μιμητικῆς καὶ περὶ κωμῳδίας ὕστερον ἐροῦμεν· περὶ δὲ τραγῳδίας λέγωμεν ἀναλαβόντες αὐτῆς ἐκ τῶν εἰρημένων τὸν γινόμενον ὅρον τῆς οὐσίας.ἔστιν οὖν τραγῳδία μίμησις πράξεως σπουδαίας[Bekker 1449b line 25]καὶ τελείας μέγεθος ἐχούσης, ἡδυσμένῳ λόγῳ χωρὶς ἑκάστῳ τῶν εἰδῶν ἐν τοῖς μορίοις, δρώντων καὶ οὐ δι’ ἀπαγγελίας, δι’ ἐλέου καὶ φόβου περαίνουσα τὴν τῶν τοιούτων παθημάτων κάθαρσιν.λέγω δὲ ἡδυσμένον μὲν λόγον τὸν ἔχοντα ῥυθμὸν καὶ ἁρμονίαν,τὸ δὲ χωρὶς τοῖς[Bekker 1449b line 30]εἴδεσι τὸ διὰ μέτρων ἔνια μόνον περαίνεσθαι καὶ πάλιν ἕτερα διὰ μέλους.ἐπεὶ δὲ πράττοντες ποιοῦνται τὴν μίμησιν, πρῶτον μὲν ἐξ ἀνάγκης ἂν εἴη τι μόριον τραγῳδίας ὁ τῆς ὄψεως κόσμος· εἶτα μελοποιία καὶ λέξις, ἐν τούτοις γὰρ ποιοῦνται τὴν μίμησιν.λέγω δὲ λέξιν μὲν αὐτὴν τὴν τῶν[Bekker 1449b line 35]μέτρων σύνθεσιν, μελοποιίαν δὲ ὃ τὴν δύναμιν φανερὰν ἔχει πᾶσαν.ἐπεὶ δὲ πράξεώς ἐστι μίμησις, πράττεται δὲ ὑπὸ τινῶν πραττόντων, οὓς ἀνάγκη ποιούς τινας εἶναι κατά τε τὸ ἦθος καὶ τὴν διάνοιαν (διὰ γὰρ τούτων καὶ τὰς[Bekker 1450a][Bekker 1450a line 1]πράξεις εἶναί φαμεν ποιάς τινας, καὶ κατὰ ταύτας καὶ τυγχάνουσι καὶ ἀποτυγχάνουσι πάντες),ἔστιν δὲ τῆς μὲν πράξεως ὁ μῦθος ἡ μίμησις, λέγω γὰρ μῦθον τοῦτον τὴν[Bekker 1450a line 5]σύνθεσιν τῶν πραγμάτων, τὰ δὲ ἤθη, καθ’ ὃ ποιούς τινας εἶναί φαμεν τοὺς πράττοντας, διάνοιαν δέ, ἐν ὅσοις λέγοντες ἀποδεικνύασίν τι ἢ καὶ ἀποφαίνονται γνώμην—ἀνάγκη οὖν πάσης τῆς τραγῳδίας μέρη εἶναι ἕξ, καθ’ ὃ ποιά τις ἐστὶν ἡ τραγῳδία· ταῦτα δ’ ἐστὶ μῦθος καὶ ἤθη καὶ λέξις καὶ[Bekker 1450a line 10]διάνοια καὶ ὄψις καὶ μελοποιία.οἷς μὲν γὰρ μιμοῦνται, δύο μέρη ἐστίν, ὡς δὲ μιμοῦνται, ἕν, ἃ δὲ μιμοῦνται, τρία, καὶ παρὰ ταῦτα οὐδέν.τούτοις μὲν οὖν † οὐκ ὀλίγοι αὐτῶν † ὡς εἰπεῖν κέχρηνται τοῖς εἴδεσιν· καὶ γὰρ † ὄψις ἔχει πᾶν † καὶ ἦθος καὶ μῦθον καὶ λέξιν καὶ μέλος καὶ διάνοιαν ὡσαύτως.[Bekker 1450a line 15]μέγιστον δὲ τούτων ἐστὶν ἡ τῶν πραγμάτων σύστασις. ἡ γὰρ τραγῳδία μίμησίς ἐστιν οὐκ ἀνθρώπων ἀλλὰ πράξεων καὶ βίου[Bekker 1450a line 20]·οὔκουν ὅπως τὰ ἤθη μιμήσωνται πράττουσιν, ἀλλὰ τὰ ἤθη συμπεριλαμβάνουσιν διὰ τὰς πράξεις· ὥστε τὰ πράγματα καὶ ὁ μῦθος τέλος τῆς τραγῳδίας, τὸ δὲ τέλος μέγιστον ἁπάντων.ἔτι ἄνευ μὲν πράξεως οὐκ ἂν γένοιτο τραγῳδία, ἄνευ δὲ ἠθῶν[Bekker 1450a line 25]γένοιτ’ ἄν·αἱ γὰρ τῶν νέων τῶν πλείστων ἀήθεις τραγῳδίαι εἰσίν, καὶ ὅλως ποιηταὶ πολλοὶ τοιοῦτοι, οἷον καὶ τῶν γραφέων Ζεῦξις πρὸς Πολύγνωτον πέπονθεν· ὁ μὲν γὰρ Πολύγνωτος ἀγαθὸς ἠθογράφος, ἡ δὲ Ζεύξιδος γραφὴ οὐδὲν ἔχει ἦθος.ἔτι ἐάν τις ἐφεξῆς θῇ ῥήσεις ἠθικὰς καὶ λέξει[Bekker 1450a line 30]καὶ διανοίᾳ εὖ πεποιημένας, οὐ ποιήσει ὃ ἦν τῆς τραγῳδίας ἔργον, ἀλλὰ πολὺ μᾶλλον ἡ καταδεεστέροις τούτοις κεχρημένη τραγῳδία, ἔχουσα δὲ μῦθον καὶ σύστασιν πραγμάτων.πρὸς δὲ τούτοις τὰ μέγιστα οἷς ψυχαγωγεῖ ἡ τραγῳδία τοῦ μύθου μέρη ἐστίν, αἵ τε περιπέτειαι καὶ[Bekker 1450a line 35]ἀναγνωρίσεις.ἔτι σημεῖον ὅτι καὶ οἱ ἐγχειροῦντες ποιεῖν πρότερον δύνανται τῇ λέξει καὶ τοῖς ἤθεσιν ἀκριβοῦν ἢ τὰ πράγματα συνίστασθαι, οἷον καὶ οἱ πρῶτοι ποιηταὶ σχεδὸν ἅπαντες.ἀρχὴ μὲν οὖν καὶ οἷον ψυχὴ ὁ μῦθος τῆς τραγῳδίας, δεύτερον δὲ τὰ ἤθη(παραπλήσιον γάρ ἐστιν καὶ[Bekker 1450b][Bekker 1450b line 1]ἐπὶ τῆς γραφικῆς· εἰ γάρ τις ἐναλείψειε τοῖς καλλίστοις φαρμάκοις χύδην, οὐκ ἂν ὁμοίως εὐφράνειεν καὶ λευκογραφήσας εἰκόνα)·ἔστιν τε μίμησις πράξεως καὶ διὰ ταύτην μάλιστα τῶν πραττόντων.τρίτον δὲ ἡ διάνοια· τοῦτο δέ[Bekker 1450b line 5]ἐστιν τὸ λέγειν δύνασθαι τὰ ἐνόντα καὶ τὰ ἁρμόττοντα, ὅπερ ἐπὶ τῶν λόγων τῆς πολιτικῆς καὶ ῥητορικῆς ἔργον ἐστίν·οἱ μὲν γὰρ ἀρχαῖοι πολιτικῶς ἐποίουν λέγοντας, οἱ δὲ νῦν ῥητορικῶς.ἔστιν δὲ ἦθος μὲν τὸ τοιοῦτον ὃ δηλοῖ τὴν προαίρεσιν, ὁποία τις[Bekker 1450b line 10]διόπερ οὐκ ἔχουσιν ἦθος τῶν λόγων ἐν[Bekker 1450b line 10a]οἷς μηδ’ ὅλως ἔστιν ὅ τι προαιρεῖται ἢ φεύγει ὁ λέγων—διάνοια δὲ ἐν οἷς ἀποδεικνύουσί τι ὡς ἔστιν ἢ ὡς οὐκ ἔστιν ἢ καθόλου τι ἀποφαίνονται.τέταρτον δὲ † τῶν μὲν λόγων † ἡ λέξις· λέγω δέ, ὥσπερ πρότερον εἴρηται, λέξιν εἶναι τὴν διὰ τῆς ὀνομασίας ἑρμηνείαν, ὃ καὶ ἐπὶ τῶν ἐμμέτρων καὶ[Bekker 1450b line 15]ἐπὶ τῶν λόγων ἔχει τὴν αὐτὴν δύναμιν.τῶν δὲ λοιπῶν ἡ μελοποιία μέγιστον τῶν ἡδυσμάτων,ἡ δὲ ὄψις ψυχαγωγικὸν μέν, ἀτεχνότατον δὲ καὶ ἥκιστα οἰκεῖον τῆς ποιητικῆς· ἡ γὰρ τῆς τραγῳδίας δύναμις καὶ ἄνευ ἀγῶνος καὶ ὑποκριτῶν ἔστιν, ἔτι δὲ κυριωτέρα περὶ τὴν ἀπεργασίαν[Bekker 1450b line 20]τῶν ὄψεων ἡ τοῦ σκευοποιοῦ τέχνη τῆς τῶν ποιητῶν ἐστιν.
Mouseia
Mouseia’s complete machine-assisted Musean translation, made directly from all 26 Ancient Greek chapters with all 279 Bekker markers preserved for fidelity, technical precision, clarity, and structure.
We shall speak later about the imitative art in hexameters and about comedy; but let us now speak about tragedy, taking up from what has already been said the definition that emerges of its essential nature.Tragedy, then, is an imitation of an action that is serious,[Bekker 1449b line 25]complete, and of a certain magnitude, in language embellished with each kind of ornament used separately in the different parts, performed by actors and not through narration, accomplishing through pity and fear the catharsis of such emotions.By “embellished language” I mean language possessing rhythm and harmony;and by “each kind used separately,” I mean that some parts are accomplished through meter alone[Bekker 1449b line 30]and others, in turn, through song.Since those who perform the imitation do so by acting, the adornment of spectacle must first of necessity be one part of tragedy; next come song-making and diction, for these are the means through which they perform the imitation.By “diction” I mean the actual composition of the[Bekker 1449b line 35]metrical language, and by “song-making” that whose entire power is manifest.And since tragedy is an imitation of action, and action is performed by certain agents, who must necessarily possess certain qualities both of character and of thought—for it is through these that we also say[Bekker 1450a][Bekker 1450a line 1]actions possess certain qualities, and it is in accordance with these that everyone succeeds or fails—and since plot is the imitation of the action—for by “plot” I mean the[Bekker 1450a line 5]arrangement of the incidents—while character is that according to which we say that the agents possess certain qualities, and thought is found wherever speakers demonstrate something or declare a judgment,every tragedy must therefore have six parts, according to which the tragedy possesses its particular quality. These are plot, character, diction,[Bekker 1450a line 10]thought, spectacle, and song-making.The means by which they imitate constitute two parts; the manner in which they imitate, one; and the objects they imitate, three; beyond these there is nothing.†Not a few of them†, one might say, have made use of these forms; for †every work has spectacle†, as well as character, plot, diction, song, and thought.[Bekker 1450a line 15]The greatest of these is the arrangement of the incidents. For tragedy is an imitation not of human beings but of actions and of life[Bekker 1450a line 20].Thus the agents do not act in order to imitate character; rather, they include character for the sake of the actions. Consequently, the incidents and the plot are the end of tragedy, and the end is the greatest thing of all.Moreover, without action there could be no tragedy, but without character[Bekker 1450a line 25]there could be.For the tragedies of most recent poets are without character, and in general many poets are of this sort, just as among painters Zeuxis stands in relation to Polygnotus: Polygnotus is a fine painter of character, whereas the painting of Zeuxis has no character at all.Again, if someone were to set down in succession speeches expressive of character and well made in diction[Bekker 1450a line 30]and thought, he would not accomplish what is the proper work of tragedy; a tragedy employing these elements less successfully, but possessing a plot and an arrangement of incidents, would accomplish it far better.Besides this, the chief means by which tragedy moves the soul are parts of the plot: reversals and[Bekker 1450a line 35]recognitions.A further sign is that those who undertake to compose tragedies attain precision in diction and character before they are able to arrange the incidents, as was true of nearly all the earliest poets.Plot, then, is the first principle and, as it were, the soul of tragedy; character holds second place(for the same is true[Bekker 1450b][Bekker 1450b line 1]in painting: if someone were to smear the most beautiful colors on a surface at random, he would not give as much pleasure as if he had drawn an image in outline).Tragedy is an imitation of action, and chiefly for the sake of the action, of the agents.Third comes thought. This[Bekker 1450b line 5]is the ability to say what is inherent in the circumstances and what is appropriate, which in speeches is the function of political and rhetorical art.The ancient poets made their characters speak politically; poets today make them speak rhetorically.Character is that which reveals choice, showing what sort of choice it is;[Bekker 1450b line 10]therefore those speeches possess no character[Bekker 1450b line 10a]in which there is nothing at all that the speaker chooses or avoids.Thought, however, is found in passages where speakers demonstrate that something is or is not the case, or make some general declaration.Fourth †among the words† is diction. By “diction,” as has been said before, I mean expression through words, which has the same force both in metrical compositions and[Bekker 1450b line 15]in prose speeches.Of the remaining parts, song-making is the greatest of the embellishments.Spectacle, though capable of moving the soul, is the least artistic and the least proper to the poetic art; for the power of tragedy exists even without public performance and actors. Moreover, in bringing spectacles to completion,[Bekker 1450b line 20]the art of the stage machinist has greater authority than that of the poets.
Mouseia
Mouseia’s complete Plain English edition, made independently and directly from all 26 Ancient Greek chapters with all 279 Bekker markers preserved.
We will speak later about the imitative art that uses hexameters and about comedy. Let us now speak about tragedy, taking up from what has been said the definition that emerges of its essential nature.Tragedy, then, is an imitation of an action that is serious,[Bekker 1449b line 25]complete, and of a certain magnitude, in language embellished with each kind of embellishment used separately in the different parts, performed by people acting and not through narration, accomplishing through pity and fear the purification of such emotions.By “embellished language” I mean language possessing rhythm and melody,and by “each kind used[Bekker 1449b line 30]separately” I mean that some parts are carried out through meter alone and others, in turn, through song.Since the imitation is performed by people acting, the arrangement of the spectacle must first of all be one part of tragedy; next come song and diction, since these are the means through which the imitation is performed.By “diction” I mean the actual composition of the[Bekker 1449b line 35]metrical language, while the meaning of “song” is entirely evident.And since tragedy is an imitation of an action, and an action is performed by certain agents, who must necessarily be people of a certain kind in both character and thought—for it is through these that we also say[Bekker 1450a][Bekker 1450a line 1]actions are of a certain kind, and it is according to these that everyone succeeds or fails—the imitation of the action is the plot, for by “plot” I mean the[Bekker 1450a line 5]organization of the events; “characters” are that according to which we say the agents are people of a certain kind; and “thought” is found in all the things they say when they prove something or express a judgment—every tragedy must therefore have six parts, according to which the tragedy is of a certain quality. These are plot, character, diction,[Bekker 1450a line 10]thought, spectacle, and song.The means by which they imitate comprise two parts, the manner in which they imitate one, and the objects they imitate three; beyond these there is nothing.With these forms, then, † not a few of them †, so to speak, have been used; for † everything has spectacle †, as well as character, plot, diction, song, and thought.[Bekker 1450a line 15]The greatest of these is the organization of the events. For tragedy is an imitation not of human beings but of actions and life[Bekker 1450a line 20].The agents therefore do not act in order to imitate characters; rather, they include character for the sake of the actions. Consequently, the events and the plot are the end of tragedy, and the end is the most important thing of all.Moreover, there could be no tragedy without action, but there could be one without character.[Bekker 1450a line 25]For most modern tragedies are without character, and in general many poets are like this, just as among painters Zeuxis stands in relation to Polygnotus: Polygnotus is a good painter of character, while the painting of Zeuxis has no character at all.Furthermore, if someone sets out in succession speeches expressive of character and well made in[Bekker 1450a line 30]diction and thought, he will not produce what was the function of tragedy. A tragedy that uses these elements less well but has a plot and an organization of events will accomplish that function much more fully.In addition, the most powerful means by which tragedy moves the soul are parts of the plot: reversals and[Bekker 1450a line 35]recognitions.Further evidence is that those attempting to compose tragedies become capable of achieving precision in diction and character before they can organize the events, as was true of almost all the earliest poets.The plot, then, is the first principle and, as it were, the soul of tragedy; character comes second(for the same is also true[Bekker 1450b][Bekker 1450b line 1]in painting: if someone were to smear on the most beautiful colors at random, he would not give as much pleasure as if he had drawn an image in outline).Tragedy is an imitation of an action, and chiefly for the sake of the action it is also an imitation of the agents.Thought comes third. This[Bekker 1450b line 5]is the ability to say what is possible and appropriate, which, in speeches, is the function of political and rhetorical art.The ancient poets made their characters speak politically, but poets now make them speak rhetorically.Character is that which reveals choice—what sort of choice it is;[Bekker 1450b line 10]therefore speeches in[Bekker 1450b line 10a]which the speaker does not choose or avoid anything at all possess no character—while thought is present in statements in which speakers prove that something is or is not the case, or express some general judgment.Fourth among † the parts of speech † is diction. By “diction,” as was said earlier, I mean expression through the use of words, which has the same function both in metrical language and[Bekker 1450b line 15]in prose.Of the remaining parts, song is the greatest of the embellishments.Spectacle is emotionally compelling, but it is the least artistic and the least proper to the art of poetry; for the power of tragedy exists even without a performance and actors, and, moreover, the art of the stage designer is more authoritative than that of the poets in producing[Bekker 1450b line 20]the visual effects.