E — Egalité

What does one dog owe another dog, one horse another horse? Nothing: no animal depends on its fellow. But man has received that ray of divinity called reason; what is its fruit? Slavery almost everywhere on earth.

If this earth were what it seems it ought to be—that is, if man found easy, assured subsistence everywhere, and a climate suited to his nature—clearly it would have been impossible for one man to enslave another. Let this globe be covered with wholesome fruits; let the air, which ought to sustain our life, bring us neither disease nor death; let man need no other lodging or bed than the fallow deer and roe deer: then the Genghis Khans and Tamerlanes will have no servants but their children, decent enough to help them in old age.

In this most natural state, enjoyed by all quadrupeds, birds, and reptiles, man would be as happy as they. Dominion would then be a chimera, an absurdity no one would think of; for why seek servants when you need no service?

If some individual with a tyrannical head and sinewy arms took it into his mind to enslave his weaker neighbor, the thing would be impossible: the oppressed man would be a hundred leagues away before the oppressor had taken his measures.

All men would therefore necessarily be equal if they had no needs. The misery attached to our species subordinates one man to another. Inequality is not the real misfortune: dependence is. It matters very little that one man calls himself His Highness and another His Holiness; but it is hard to serve either.

A large family has cultivated good land; two small neighboring families have barren, stubborn fields. The two poor families must serve the wealthy family or slaughter it: that follows easily enough. One of the needy families offers its labor to the rich one for bread; the other attacks it and is beaten. The serving family is the origin of servants and laborers; the beaten family is the origin of slaves.

On our unhappy globe it is impossible for men living in society not to be divided into two classes, one of oppressors, the other of oppressed; and these two subdivide into a thousand, and those thousand have further shades of difference.

Not all the oppressed are utterly unhappy. Most are born in that state, and continual labor prevents them from feeling their situation too keenly; but when they do feel it, then we see wars, like that of the popular party against the senatorial party in Rome, those of the peasants in Germany, England, France. Sooner or later all these wars end in the people’s enslavement, because the powerful have money, and money is master of everything within a state. I say within a state, for it is not the same between nation and nation. The nation that uses iron best will always subjugate the one with more gold and less courage.

Every man is born with a fairly violent inclination toward dominion, wealth, and pleasures, and with a strong taste for laziness. Consequently, every man would like to have other people’s money and wives or daughters, to be their master, subject them to all his whims, and do nothing—or at least do only very agreeable things. You can see that, with these fine dispositions, it is as impossible for men to be equal as it is impossible for two preachers or two professors of theology not to be jealous of one another.

The human race as it is cannot subsist unless there are innumerable useful men who possess nothing at all. For certainly a comfortably situated man will not leave his land to come and plow yours; and if you need a pair of shoes, a master of requests will not make them for you. Equality is therefore both the most natural thing and, at the same time, the most chimerical.

Since men are excessive in everything whenever they can be, this inequality has been pushed too far. In several countries it has been maintained that a citizen is not permitted to leave the land where chance caused him to be born. The plain meaning of this law is: “This country is so bad and so badly governed that we forbid each individual to leave, for fear everyone might leave.” Do better: give all your subjects the desire to remain with you, and foreigners the desire to come.

In the depths of his heart every man has the right to believe himself entirely equal to other men. It does not follow that a cardinal’s cook ought to order his master to make his dinner; but the cook may say: “I am a man like my master; like him, I was born crying; like me, he will die in the same anguish and amid the same ceremonies. We both perform the same animal functions. If the Turks take Rome, and I am then a cardinal and my master a cook, I shall take him into my service.” All this reasoning is sound and just; but until the Grand Turk takes Rome, the cook must do his duty, or all human society is subverted.

As for a man who is neither a cardinal’s cook nor invested with any other office in the state; a private individual attached to nothing, but annoyed at being received everywhere with an air of patronage or contempt, who plainly sees that several Monsignors have no more knowledge, wit, or virtue than he, and is tired of sometimes waiting in their antechambers—what course should he take? Leave.

What does one dog owe another dog, or one horse another horse? Nothing. No animal depends on its own kind. But people have received the ray of divinity we call reason. What has it brought them? They’re slaves almost everywhere on earth.

Suppose this earth were what it seems it ought to be. Everywhere, people would find an easy, secure living and a climate suited to their nature. Clearly nobody could ever have enslaved anyone else. Let this globe be covered with nourishing fruit. Let the air that should sustain our life bring us neither disease nor death. Let people need no more shelter or bedding than fallow deer and roe deer. Then the Genghis Khans and Tamerlanes will have only their children to serve them. Those children will be decent enough to help them in old age.

All four-footed animals, birds, and reptiles enjoy this entirely natural way of life. In it, people would be just as happy as they are. Ruling over others would be a fantasy, too absurd for anyone to think of. Why look for servants when you don’t need anyone to serve you?

Suppose someone with a tyrant’s mind and strong arms wanted to enslave a weaker neighbor. He couldn’t do it. His victim would be a hundred leagues away before he’d worked out his plans.

So if people had no needs, they’d have to be equal. The hardship that comes with being human puts one person under another. Inequality isn’t the real misfortune. Having to depend on others is. It matters very little whether a man is called His Highness or His Holiness. But it’s hard to serve either one.

A large family has cultivated good land. Two small neighboring families have poor, stubborn fields. The two poor families must serve the wealthy one or slaughter it. That follows easily enough. One poor family offers to work for the rich one in return for bread. The other attacks it and loses. Servants and laborers come from the family that serves. Slaves come from the family that loses.

On our unhappy globe, people can’t live in society without forming two classes. One oppresses, and the other is oppressed. Those two divide into a thousand more, with further differences among those thousand.

Not all the oppressed are completely unhappy. Most were born into that condition, and constant work keeps them from feeling it too keenly. But once they feel it, wars break out. Rome’s popular party fought its senatorial party. Peasants fought wars in Germany, England, and France. Sooner or later all these wars end with the people being enslaved. The powerful have money, and money rules everything within a state. I say within a state. The same isn’t true between nations. The nation that uses iron best will always conquer the one with more gold and less courage.

Everyone is born with a fairly strong desire to rule, be rich, and enjoy themselves. Everyone also really likes being lazy. So everyone wants other people’s money and wives or daughters. They want to rule them and make them obey every whim. They want to do nothing—or at least nothing but very pleasant things. You see what fine desires these are. With them, people can’t be equal. That’s as impossible as two preachers or two theology professors not being jealous of each other.

The human race as it is needs countless useful people who own nothing. Without them, it can’t survive. A man who’s well off certainly won’t leave his land to come plow yours. If you need shoes, a senior official handling petitions won’t make them for you. So equality is both the most natural thing and the most unrealistic.

People take everything to extremes when they can. They’ve pushed this inequality too far. In several countries, they claim citizens can’t leave the land where they happened to be born. This law plainly means: “This country is bad and badly governed. We forbid every individual to leave because we’re afraid everyone will go.” Do better. Make all your subjects want to stay in your country, and foreigners want to come.

Deep down, every person has the right to consider himself entirely equal to everyone else. It doesn’t follow that a cardinal’s cook should order his master to make him dinner. But the cook can say, “I’m a man like my master. Like him, I was born crying. He’ll die like me, in the same agony and with the same ceremonies. Our bodies do the same animal things. Suppose the Turks capture Rome and I become a cardinal and my master a cook. Then I’ll hire him.” All this is reasonable and just. But until the Grand Turk captures Rome, the cook must do his duty. Otherwise all human society falls apart.

But take a man who isn’t a cardinal’s cook and holds no other post in the state. He’s a private person with no ties. Everywhere he goes, people patronize him or treat him with contempt, and he resents it. He clearly sees that several Monsignors know no more than he does. They’re no smarter or better than him. He’s tired of sometimes sitting in their waiting rooms. What should he do? Leave.