Jean-Jacques Rousseau · Complete work
Book I, Chapter 2
Book I, Chapter 2 of 49. Read it here for reference, or continue through the entire work without leaving the reader.
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Des premieres Sociétés.
La plus ancienne de toutes les sociétés & la seule naturelle est celle de la famille. Encore les enfans ne restent-ils liés au pere qu’aussi longtems qu’ils ont besoin de lui pour se conserver. Sitôt que ce besoin cesse, le lien naturel se dissout. Les enfans, exempts de l’obéïssance qu’ils devoient au pere, le pere exempt des soins qu’il devoit aux enfans, rentrent tous également dans l’indépendance. S’ils continuent de rester unis ce n’est plus naturellement c’est volontairement, & la famille elle-même ne se maintient que par convention.
Cette liberté commune est une conséquence de la nature de l’homme. Sa premiere loi est de veiller à sa propre conservation, ses premiers soins sont ceux qu’il se doit à lui-même, &, sitôt qu’il est en âge de raison, lui seul étant juge des moyens propres à le conserver devient par-là son propre maitre.
La famille est donc si l’on veut le premier modéle des sociétés politiques; le chef est l’image du pere, le peuple est l’image des enfans, & tous étant nés égaux & libres n’aliénent leur liberté que pour leur utilité. Toute la différence est que dans la famille l’amour du pere pour ses enfans le paye des soins qu’il leur rend, & que dans l’Etat le plaisir de commander supplée à cet amour que le chef n’a pas pour ses peuples.
Grotius nie que tout pouvoir humain soit établi en faveur de ceux qui sont gouvernés: Il cite l’esclavage en exemple. Sa plus constante maniere de raisonner est d’établir toujours le droit par le fait. On pourroit employer une méthode plus conséquente, mais non pas plus favorable aux Tirans.
Il est donc douteux, selon Grotius, si le genre humain appartient à une centaine d’hommes, ou si cette centaine d’hommes appartient au genre humain, & il paroit dans tout son livre pancher pour le premier avis: c’est aussi le sentiment de Hobbes. Ainsi voilà l’espece humaine divisée en troupeaux de bétail, dont chacun a son chef, qui le garde pour le dévorer.
Comme un pâtre est d’une nature supérieure à celle de son troupeau, les pasteurs d’hommes, qui sont leurs chefs, sont aussi d’une nature supérieure à celle de leurs peuples. Ainsi raisonnoit, au raport de Philon, l’Empereur Caligula; concluant assez bien de cette analogie que les rois étoient des Dieux, ou que les peuples étoient des bêtes.
Le raisonnement de ce Caligula revient à celui d’Hobbes & de Grotius. Aristote avant eux tous avoit dit aussi que les hommes ne sont point naturellement égaux, mais que les uns naissent pour l’esclavage & les autres pour la domination.
Aristote avoit raison, mais il prenoit l’effet pour la cause. Tout homme né dans l’esclavage nait pour l’esclavage, rien n’est plus certain. Les esclaves perdent tout dans leurs fers, jusqu’au désir d’en sortir: ils aiment leur servitude comme les compagnons d’Ulisse aimoient leur abrutissement. S’il y a donc des esclaves par nature, c’est parce qu’il y a eu des esclaves contre nature. La force a fait les premiers esclaves, leur lâcheté les a perpétués.
Je n’ai rien dit du roi Adam, ni de l’empereur Noé pere de trois grands Monarques qui se partagerent l’univers, comme firent les enfans de Saturne, qu’on a cru reconnoître en eux. J’espere qu’on me saura gré de cette modération; car, descendant directement de l’un de ces Princes, & peut-être de la branche aînée, que sais-je si par la vérification des titres je ne me trouverois point le légitime roi du genre humain? Quoi qu’il en soit, on ne peut disconvenir qu’Adam n’ait été Souverain du monde comme Robinson de son isle, tant qu’il en fut le seul habitant; & ce qu’il y avoit de commode dans cet empire étoit que le monarque assuré sur son trône n’avoit à craindre ni rébellion ni guerres ni conspirateurs.
Musean translation
Mouseia’s complete machine-assisted Musean translation, made directly from the complete French text of the 1762 edition, all four books and the appendix for fidelity, the author’s force and cadence, and modern clarity.
Of the First Societies.
The oldest of all societies, and the only natural one, is the family. Even children remain bound to their father only as long as they need him for their preservation. As soon as that need ends, the natural bond dissolves. The children, released from the obedience they owed their father, and the father, released from the care he owed his children, all return equally to independence. If they continue to live together, they do so no longer by nature but by choice; even the family is maintained only by convention.
This common freedom follows from human nature. Man's first law is to watch over his own preservation; his first cares are those he owes himself. And as soon as he reaches the age of reason, he alone becomes the judge of the means suited to preserving himself, and thereby his own master.
The family, then, is, if you will, the first model of political societies: the leader is the image of the father, the people the image of the children; and all, born equal and free, surrender their freedom only for their own benefit. The sole difference is that in the family the father's love for his children repays him for the care he gives them, whereas in the state the pleasure of commanding takes the place of a love the leader does not feel for his peoples.
Grotius denies that all human power is established for the benefit of the governed. He cites slavery as an example. His most consistent method of reasoning is always to establish right from fact. One could employ a more coherent method, but none more favorable to tyrants.
Thus, according to Grotius, it is doubtful whether humankind belongs to a hundred men, or those hundred men belong to humankind; throughout his book he seems to incline toward the first opinion. Hobbes holds it too. Here, then, is the human species divided into herds of cattle, each with its chief, who keeps it in order to devour it.
As a shepherd is of a nature superior to that of his flock, so the shepherds of men, their leaders, are of a nature superior to that of their peoples. Thus, according to Philo, reasoned Emperor Caligula, drawing the fairly sound conclusion from this analogy that either kings were gods or peoples were beasts.
Caligula's reasoning comes back to that of Hobbes and Grotius. Before any of them, Aristotle had also said that men are not naturally equal, but that some are born for slavery and others for dominion.
Aristotle was right, but he mistook effect for cause. Every man born into slavery is born for slavery; nothing is more certain. Slaves lose everything in their chains, even the desire to escape them: they love their servitude as the companions of Ulysses loved their degradation into beasts. If, then, there are slaves by nature, it is because there have been slaves against nature. Force made the first slaves; their cowardice perpetuated them.
I have said nothing of King Adam, nor of Emperor Noah, father of three great monarchs who divided the universe among themselves, as did the children of Saturn, in whom some have thought to recognize them. I hope I shall be thanked for this restraint; for, descending directly from one of these princes, perhaps even from the eldest branch, how do I know that a verification of titles would not reveal me as the legitimate king of humankind? In any case, no one can deny that Adam was sovereign of the world, as Robinson was of his island, for as long as he was its sole inhabitant. And the convenience of that empire lay in the fact that the monarch, secure upon his throne, had no rebellion, wars, or conspirators to fear.
Plain English translation
Mouseia’s complete Plain English edition, made independently and directly from the complete French text of the 1762 edition, all four books and the appendix.
On the First Societies.
The oldest of all societies, and the only natural one, is the family. Even children remain bound to their father only as long as they need him to survive. Once that need ends, the natural bond dissolves. The children no longer owe their father obedience, and the father no longer owes his children care. All become equally independent again. If they stay together, they do so by choice, not by nature. Even the family continues to exist only by agreement.
This shared freedom follows from human nature. A person's first law is to look after his own survival. His first responsibility is to himself. As soon as he can reason, he alone judges how best to preserve himself and so becomes his own master.
The family, then, can be called the first model of political societies. The leader stands for the father and the people for the children. All are born equal and free, and they give up their freedom only for their own benefit. The difference is that, in a family, a father's love for his children rewards him for caring for them. In a state, the pleasure of giving orders takes the place of that love, which the leader does not feel for his peoples.
Grotius denies that all human power is established for the benefit of those who are governed. He offers slavery as an example. His usual way of arguing is always to establish a right from a fact. One might use a more consistent method, but none more favorable to tyrants.
So, according to Grotius, it is an open question whether the human race belongs to a hundred men or those hundred men belong to the human race. Throughout his book he seems to favor the first view. Hobbes thinks so too. On this account, humanity is divided into herds of cattle, each with a leader who guards it in order to eat it.
Since a shepherd is of a higher nature than his flock, the shepherds of human beings, their leaders, must likewise be of a higher nature than their peoples. According to Philo, this was how the Emperor Caligula reasoned. He drew the fairly logical conclusion from this comparison that kings were gods or peoples were beasts.
Caligula's reasoning amounts to that of Hobbes and Grotius. Before them all, Aristotle had also said that people are not naturally equal: some are born for slavery and others for rule.
Aristotle was right, but he mistook the effect for the cause. Anyone born into slavery is born for slavery; nothing is more certain. In their chains, slaves lose everything, even the desire to get out. They come to love their servitude, as the companions of Ulysses loved their reduction to brute animals. If there are slaves by nature, then, it is because there were first slaves against nature. Force made the first slaves; their cowardice kept them slaves.
I have said nothing about King Adam or Emperor Noah, the father of three great monarchs who divided the world among themselves, as the children of Saturn did, with whom some have identified them. I hope I get credit for my restraint. After all, I descend directly from one of these princes, perhaps from the eldest branch. Who knows whether, once my claim is checked, I might prove to be the rightful king of the human race? In any case, no one can deny that Adam was sovereign over the world, just as Robinson was sovereign over his island, as long as he was its only inhabitant. What made that empire convenient was that the monarch, secure on his throne, had no rebellion, wars, or conspirators to fear.