Book 5, Chapter 27

76 “Let there be three kinds of goods, then: let us withdraw now from the snares of the Stoics, which I realize I have used more often than I usually do. By all means let there be those kinds of goods, provided that bodily and external goods lie low on the ground, called goods merely because they are to be taken, while those divine goods of the mind spread far and wide and touch the heavens. Why should I call the man who has attained them merely happy, and not supremely happy?

“Will the wise man, however, dread pain? That is the strongest opponent of this position. Against death, our own and that of those dear to us, and against distress and the other disturbances of the mind, the discussions of the preceding days seem to have armed and prepared us well enough. Pain appears to be virtue’s fiercest adversary. It brandishes blazing torches; it threatens to break down courage, greatness of spirit, and endurance.

77 “Will virtue, then, succumb to it? Will the happy life of a wise and steadfast man give way before it? Good gods, how disgraceful! Spartan boys do not groan when they are torn by the pain of the lash. At Sparta I myself have seen bands of young men fighting with incredible intensity, with fists, heels, nails, and finally teeth, dying before admitting defeat. What barbarous land is wilder or more uncultivated than India? Yet among that people, to begin with, those regarded as wise pass their lives naked and endure the snows of the Caucasus and the force of winter without pain; and when they place themselves against the flames, they burn without a groan.

78 “As for the women of India, when their husband dies they enter a contest and submit to judgment over which of them he loved most—for several women are commonly married to one man. The winner is placed on the funeral pyre with her husband, rejoicing, while her family escorts her; the defeated woman goes away in sorrow. Custom could never conquer nature, for nature is always unconquerable. But we have infected our minds with shade, luxury, idleness, softness, and inactivity; we have beguiled and weakened them with false opinions and bad habits. Who does not know the custom of the Egyptians? Their minds, steeped in perverse delusions, would undergo any torture rather than harm an ibis, an asp, a cat, a dog, or a crocodile. Even if they have harmed one unwittingly, they refuse no penalty.

79 “I speak of human beings; but what of the beasts? Do they not endure cold and hunger, their roaming runs and wanderings through mountains and forests? Do they not fight for their young so fiercely that they take wounds and fear no charge, no blow? I pass over what the ambitious bear and suffer for office, lovers of praise for glory, those inflamed with love to satisfy desire. Life is full of examples.”

76 “Suppose we accept three classes of good. I’ve been using more Stoic traps than usual, I notice, so let’s step away from them. We can allow those classes, as long as physical goods and external goods stay down at ground level. They can be called goods only in the sense that we should select them. The mind’s divine goods, by contrast, must spread out in all directions and reach heaven. When someone has acquired those, why call him just happy? Why not say he’s as happy as anyone can be?

“But will a wise person be frightened of pain? Pain is the strongest objection to this position. Our discussions on earlier days seem to have armed and prepared us well enough against our own death and the deaths of those close to us, and against distress and the other emotional disturbances. Pain seems to be virtue’s fiercest opponent. It points blazing torches at virtue. It threatens to cripple courage, greatness of spirit, and endurance.

77 “So is virtue going to surrender to pain? Is pain going to defeat the happiness of someone wise and firm? What a disgrace that would be, good gods! The whip tears Spartan boys’ bodies, yet they make no groan. I’ve personally watched bands of young men at Sparta battling with astonishing force. They punched, kicked, scratched, and even bit; they died before they would acknowledge defeat. Where is a more uncivilized, rougher country than India? Yet the people they regard as wise live naked there all their lives. Without suffering they bear the Caucasus snows and the violence of winter. They put themselves against the fire and burn without a sound of complaint.

78 “Indian women also provide an example. A husband usually has several wives there. At his death they compete for a ruling on which wife he loved best. The winner is happy as she is put on the funeral pyre beside her husband, with her relatives escorting her. The unsuccessful one leaves in sorrow. Habit could never overcome nature, which is always unconquerable. We, though, have damaged our minds by staying in the shade, indulging in luxury, taking our ease, growing sluggish, and doing nothing. False opinions and bad practices have lulled and weakened them. Everyone knows what happens in Egypt. People there are so steeped in erroneous, perverse ideas that they’d undergo any form of torture sooner than injure an ibis, an asp, a cat, a dog, or a crocodile. If they accidentally harm one, they accept whatever punishment comes.

79 “I’m talking about people. But what about animals? Don’t they endure cold, hunger, and roaming and ranging over mountains and through forests? Don’t they fight so fiercely for their young that they take wounds without shrinking from any attack, without shrinking from any blow? I’ll leave out what ambitious people endure and suffer for office, what those eager for praise endure for glory, and what people burning with love endure for desire. Life is full of examples.”