Thomas Hobbes · Complete work
Part III, Chapter XXXVII, 2
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Secondly, that no Devil, Angel, or other created Spirit, can do a Miracle. For it must either be by vertue of some naturall science, or by Incantation, that is, vertue of words. For if the Inchanters do it by their own power independent, there is some power that proceedeth not from God; which all men deny: and if they doe it by power given them, then is the work not from the immediate hand of God, but naturall, and consequently no Miracle.
There be some texts of Scripture, that seem to attribute the power of working wonders (equall to some of those immediate Miracles, wrought by God himself,) to certain Arts of Magick, and Incantation. As for example, when we read that after the Rod of Moses being cast on the ground became a Serpent, (Exod. 7. 11.) “the Magicians of Egypt did the like by their Enchantments;” and that after Moses had turned the waters of the Egyptian Streams, Rivers, Ponds, and Pooles of water into blood, (Exod. 7. 22.) “the Magicians of Egypt did so likewise, with their Enchantments;” and that after Moses had by the power of God brought frogs upon the land, (Exod. 8. 7.) “the Magicians also did so with their Enchantments, and brought up frogs upon the land of Egypt;” will not a man be apt to attribute Miracles to Enchantments; that is to say, to the efficacy of the sound of Words; and think the same very well proved out of this, and other such places? and yet there is no place of Scripture, that telleth us what on Enchantment is. If therefore Enchantment be not, as many think it, a working of strange effects by spells, and words; but Imposture, and delusion, wrought by ordinary means; and so far from supernaturall, as the Impostors need not the study so much as of naturall causes, but the ordinary ignorance, stupidity, and superstition of mankind, to doe them; those texts that seem to countenance the power of Magick, Witchcraft, and Enchantment, must needs have another sense, than at first sight they seem to bear.
For it is evident enough, that Words have no effect, but on those that understand them; and then they have no other, but to signifie the intentions, or passions of them that speak; and thereby produce, hope, fear, or other passions, or conceptions in the hearer. Therefore when a Rod seemeth a Serpent, or the Water Bloud, or any other Miracle seemeth done by Enchantment; if it be not to the edification of Gods people, not the Rod, nor the Water, nor any other thing is enchanted; that is to say, wrought upon by the Words, but the Spectator. So that all the Miracle consisteth in this, that the Enchanter has deceived a man; which is no Miracle, but a very easie matter to doe.
For such is the ignorance, and aptitude to error generally of all men, but especially of them that have not much knowledge of naturall causes, and of the nature, and interests of men; as by innumerable and easie tricks to be abused. What opinion of miraculous power, before it was known there was a Science of the course of the Stars, might a man have gained, that should have told the people, This hour, or day the Sun should be darkned? A juggler by the handling of his goblets, and other trinkets, if it were not now ordinarily practised, would be thought to do his wonders by the power at least of the Devil. A man that hath practised to speak by drawing in of his breath, (which kind of men in antient time were called Ventriloqui,) and so make the weaknesse of his voice seem to proceed, not from the weak impulsion of the organs of Speech, but from distance of place, is able to make very many men beleeve it is a voice from Heaven, whatsoever he please to tell them. And for a crafty man, that hath enquired into the secrets, and familiar confessions that one man ordinarily maketh to another of his actions and adventures past, to tell them him again is no hard matter; and yet there be many, that by such means as that, obtain the reputation of being Conjurers. But it is too long a businesse, to reckon up the severall sorts of those men, which the Greeks called Thaumaturgi, that is to say, workers of things wonderfull; and yet these do all they do, by their own single dexterity. But if we looke upon the Impostures wrought by Confederacy, there is nothing how impossible soever to be done, that is impossible to bee beleeved. For two men conspiring, one to seem lame, the other to cure him with a charme, will deceive many: but many conspiring, one to seem lame, another so to cure him, and all the rest to bear witnesse; will deceive many more.
In this aptitude of mankind, to give too hasty beleefe to pretended Miracles, there can be no better, nor I think any other caution, than that which God hath prescribed, first by Moses, (as I have said before in the precedent chapter,) in the beginning of the 13. and end of the 18. of Deuteronomy; That wee take not any for Prophets, that teach any other Religion, then that which Gods Lieutenant, (which at that time was Moses,) hath established; nor any, (though he teach the same Religion,) whose Praediction we doe not see come to passe. Moses therefore in his time, and Aaron, and his successors in their times, and the Soveraign Governour of Gods people, next under God himself, that is to say, the Head of the Church in all times, are to be consulted, what doctrine he hath established, before wee give credit to a pretended Miracle, or Prophet. And when that is done, the thing they pretend to be a Miracle, we must both see it done, and use all means possible to consider, whether it be really done; and not onely so, but whether it be such, as no man can do the like by his naturall power, but that it requires the immediate hand of God. And in this also we must have recourse to Gods Lieutenant; to whom in all doubtfull cases, wee have submitted our private judgments. For Example; if a man pretend, that after certain words spoken over a peece of bread, that presently God hath made it not bread, but a God, or a man, or both, and neverthelesse it looketh still as like bread as ever it did; there is no reason for any man to think it really done; nor consequently to fear him, till he enquire of God, by his Vicar, or Lieutenant, whether it be done, or not. If he say not, then followeth that which Moses saith, (Deut. 18. 22.) “he hath spoken it presumptuously, thou shalt not fear him.” If he say ’tis done, then he is not to contradict it. So also if wee see not, but onely hear tell of a Miracle, we are to consult the Lawful Church; that is to say, the lawful Head thereof, how far we are to give credit to the relators of it. And this is chiefly the case of men, that in these days live under Christian Soveraigns. For in these times, I do not know one man, that ever saw any such wondrous work, done by the charm, or at the word, or prayer of a man, that a man endued but with a mediocrity of reason, would think supernaturall: and the question is no more, whether what wee see done, be a Miracle; whether the Miracle we hear, or read of, were a reall work, and not the Act of a tongue, or pen; but in plain terms, whether the report be true, or a lye. In which question we are not every one, to make our own private Reason, or Conscience, but the Publique Reason, that is, the reason of Gods Supreme Lieutenant, Judge; and indeed we have made him Judge already, if wee have given him a Soveraign power, to doe all that is necessary for our peace and defence. A private man has alwaies the liberty, (because thought is free,) to beleeve, or not beleeve in his heart, those acts that have been given out for Miracles, according as he shall see, what benefit can accrew by mens belief, to those that pretend, or countenance them, and thereby conjecture, whether they be Miracles, or Lies. But when it comes to confession of that faith, the Private Reason must submit to the Publique; that is to say, to Gods Lieutenant. But who is this Lieutenant of God, and Head of the Church, shall be considered in its proper place thereafter.
CHAPTER XXXVIII. OF THE SIGNIFICATION IN SCRIPTURE OF ETERNALL LIFE, HELL, SALVATION, THE WORLD TO COME, AND REDEMPTION
Musean translation
Mouseia’s complete machine-assisted Musean translation, made directly from the complete 1651 English text (introduction, forty-seven chapters, review and conclusion) for fidelity, the author’s force and cadence, and modern clarity. Hobbes’s marginal summaries are omitted.
Second, no devil, angel, or other created spirit can perform a miracle. For such a thing must be done either through some natural science or through incantation, that is, through the power of words. If enchanters do it by their own independent power, there exists a power that does not proceed from God, which everyone denies. And if they do it by a power given to them, the work does not come from the immediate hand of God, but is natural, and consequently no miracle.
There are passages of Scripture that seem to attribute to certain arts of magic and incantation a power to perform wonders equal to some of the immediate miracles performed by God himself. For example, after the rod of Moses, cast on the ground, became a serpent, we read (Exod. 7. 11.) that “the magicians of Egypt did the same by their enchantments.” And after Moses had turned the water of the Egyptian streams, rivers, ponds, and pools to blood, (Exod. 7. 22.) “the magicians of Egypt did likewise with their enchantments.” And after Moses, by God's power, brought frogs upon the land, (Exod. 8. 7.) “the magicians also did the same with their enchantments, and brought up frogs upon the land of Egypt.” Will a person not be inclined to attribute miracles to enchantments—that is, to the effectiveness of the sound of words—and think this well proved by these and similar passages? Yet nowhere does Scripture tell us what an enchantment is. If enchantment is not, as many suppose, the production of strange effects by spells and words, but imposture and deception brought about by ordinary means—so far from supernatural that impostors need not even study natural causes, but only exploit the ordinary ignorance, stupidity, and superstition of mankind—then passages that seem to countenance the power of magic, witchcraft, and enchantment must have a different sense from the one they appear at first sight to bear.
For it is evident enough that words have no effect except on those who understand them, and even then have no effect other than to signify the speaker's intentions or passions and thereby produce hope, fear, or other passions or conceptions in the hearer. Therefore, when a rod seems a serpent, or water seems blood, or any other miracle seems to have been done by enchantment, if it is not for the edification of God's people, neither the rod nor the water nor anything else has been enchanted—that is, acted on by words. It is the spectator who has been acted on. Thus the whole miracle consists in the enchanter's having deceived someone, which is no miracle but a very easy thing to do.
For such is people's general ignorance and susceptibility to error, especially among those who know little about natural causes or about human nature and interests, that countless easy tricks can deceive them. Before the science of the motions of the stars was known, what reputation for miraculous power might a man have gained by telling people that the sun would darken at a particular hour or on a particular day? If the manipulation of cups and other trinkets by a juggler were not now commonly practiced, he would be thought to work his wonders at least by the power of the devil. A man who has practiced speaking while drawing in his breath (people of this sort were called Ventriloqui in ancient times), making the weakness of his voice seem to arise not from a feeble impulse of the organs of speech but from a distance, can make very many people believe that whatever he chooses to say to them is a voice from heaven. It is not difficult, either, for a crafty man who has inquired into the secrets and familiar confidences that people ordinarily share with one another concerning their past actions and adventures to repeat those accounts to them. Yet many gain in this way a reputation as conjurers. It would take too long to enumerate the various sorts of people whom the Greeks called Thaumaturgi, meaning workers of wonders; yet all that these people do they accomplish by their own dexterity alone. If we consider impostures performed by accomplices, however, nothing is so impossible to perform that it is impossible to make people believe it has been performed. Two men conspiring, one to appear lame and the other to cure him with a charm, will deceive many; but many conspiring—one to appear lame, another to cure him, and all the rest to bear witness—will deceive many more.
Against this human readiness to put too hasty a faith in alleged miracles, there can be no better precaution, nor, I think, any other, than the one God prescribed first through Moses, as I said in the preceding chapter, at the beginning of the 13. and the end of the 18. chapter of Deuteronomy: we must not accept as prophets those who teach a religion other than the one established by God's lieutenant (who at that time was Moses), nor anyone whose prediction we do not see come to pass, even if he teaches the same religion. Therefore Moses in his time, Aaron and his successors in theirs, and the sovereign governor of God's people next under God himself—that is, the head of the Church in every age—must be consulted about what doctrine he has established before we give credence to an alleged miracle or prophet. Having done so, we must both see the supposed miracle performed and use every possible means to consider whether it was really performed; and not only that, but whether it is something no one could do by natural power, requiring the immediate hand of God. In this too we must have recourse to God's lieutenant, to whom in all doubtful cases we have submitted our private judgments. For example, if a man claims that after certain words are spoken over a piece of bread God immediately makes it no longer bread, but a God, or a man, or both, and yet it still looks exactly as much like bread as ever, no one has reason to think that this has really happened, or consequently to fear him, until he inquires of God through God's vicar or lieutenant whether it has happened or not. If the lieutenant says no, then what Moses says follows (Deut. 18. 22.): “he has spoken presumptuously; you shall not fear him.” If he says it has happened, he must not be contradicted. Likewise, if we do not see a miracle but only hear of one, we must consult the lawful Church—that is, its lawful head—about how far to trust those who report it. This is chiefly the situation of those who now live under Christian Sovereigns. For in these times I know no one who has ever seen a wondrous work performed by a man's charm, word, or prayer that a person endowed with even moderate reason would consider supernatural. The question is no longer whether something we see performed is a miracle; it is whether a miracle we hear or read about was a real work rather than the act of a tongue or a pen—or, plainly, whether the report is true or a lie. In deciding this question, each of us must make the judge not our own private reason or conscience but the public reason: the reason of God's supreme lieutenant. Indeed, we have already made him judge if we have given him sovereign power to do all that is necessary for our peace and defense. A private person always remains free, since thought is free, to believe or disbelieve inwardly acts reported as miracles, according to his judgment of what benefit those who claim or support them may gain from people's belief, and hence whether they are miracles or lies. But when it comes to professing that faith, private reason must submit to public reason—that is, to God's lieutenant. Who this lieutenant of God and head of the Church is will be considered in its proper place below.
CHAPTER XXXVIII. OF THE MEANING IN SCRIPTURE OF ETERNAL LIFE, HELL, SALVATION, THE WORLD TO COME, AND REDEMPTION
Plain English translation
Mouseia’s complete Plain English edition, made independently and directly from the complete 1651 English text (introduction, forty-seven chapters, review and conclusion). Hobbes’s marginal summaries are omitted.
Second, no Devil, angel, or other created spirit can perform a miracle. Such an act would have to result either from knowledge of nature or from an incantation, meaning the power of words. If the enchanters do it through an independent power of their own, then some power does not come from God, which everyone denies. If they do it through power given to them, then the work is not God's direct action. It is natural, and so is no miracle.
Some passages of Scripture seem to credit magic and incantations with the power to perform wonders equal to some miracles done directly by God. For example, after Moses threw down his rod and it became a serpent, we read (Exod. 7. 11.) that “the magicians of Egypt did the same by their enchantments.” After Moses turned the waters of the Egyptian streams, rivers, ponds, and pools to blood, we read (Exod. 7. 22.) that “the magicians of Egypt did the same with their enchantments.” And after Moses brought frogs over the land by God's power, we read (Exod. 8. 7.) that “the magicians also did the same with their enchantments, and brought frogs upon the land of Egypt.” These passages, along with similar ones, may easily make someone think that enchantments can work miracles through the power of spoken words. Yet Scripture nowhere tells us what an enchantment is. Suppose an enchantment is not the production of strange effects by spells and words, as many suppose. Suppose it is instead a deception carried out by ordinary means, so far from supernatural that the deceivers need not even study natural causes. All they need is people's ordinary ignorance, foolishness, and superstition. Then passages that seem to support the power of magic, witchcraft, and enchantments must mean something other than what they seem to mean at first.
Words clearly affect only people who understand them. Their only effect is to convey the speaker's intentions or feelings and thereby produce hope, fear, other feelings, or ideas in listeners. So when a rod seems to become a serpent, or water seems to become blood, or any other miracle seems to occur by enchantment, consider whether it serves to strengthen God's people. If it does not, then neither the rod nor the water nor anything else has been changed by the words. Instead, the spectator has been affected. The whole supposed miracle is that the enchanter has deceived someone. That is not a miracle, but a very easy thing to do.
People in general, especially those who know little about natural causes or about people's motives and interests, are ignorant and prone to error. Countless simple tricks can deceive them. Before astronomy was known, imagine the reputation for miraculous power someone could have gained by telling people the hour or day when the sun would darken. If jugglers did not commonly handle cups and other small objects as they do now, people would think their tricks came at least from the Devil's power. A person can train himself to speak while breathing inward. In ancient times such people were called Ventriloqui. By doing this, he makes his voice sound faint, as if its faintness came from a great distance rather than a weak movement of his speech organs. He can make many people think they hear a voice from heaven, saying whatever he chooses. A clever person can also find out what someone has privately confessed to another about past actions and experiences. Repeating those secrets to the first person is easy, but many people gain a reputation as conjurers this way. It would take too long to list all the kinds of people whom the Greeks called Thaumaturgi, meaning workers of wonders. They do everything they do through their own skill alone. When several deceivers cooperate, however, people can be made to believe anything, no matter how impossible it is. Two people can deceive many if one pretends to be lame and the other pretends to cure him with a charm. A larger group can deceive many more if one pretends to be lame, another pretends to cure him, and everyone else testifies that it happened.
Because people are so ready to believe supposed miracles too quickly, there is no better precaution, and I think no other one, than the rule God gave through Moses. As I said in the previous chapter, it appears at the beginning of the 13. and end of the 18. of Deuteronomy. We must not accept as a prophet anyone who teaches a religion other than the one established by God's lieutenant, who at that time was Moses. Nor should we accept a prophet whose prediction does not come true, even if he teaches the same religion. In his time it was Moses, along with Aaron; in later times it was their successors. In every age, the sovereign governor of God's people, directly under God, is the Head of the Church. Before believing a supposed prophet or miracle, we must consult that head about the doctrine he has established. After doing so, we must see the alleged miracle performed. We must use every possible means to decide whether it really happens, and whether it is something no human could accomplish through natural powers, so that it requires God's direct action. On this point too, we must turn to God's lieutenant, to whom we have submitted our private judgment in every doubtful case. For example, someone might claim that after certain words are spoken over a piece of bread, God instantly changes it from bread into a God, a human being, or both, though it still looks exactly like bread. No one has reason to think this has really happened, or to fear the claimant, until he asks God through God's vicar or lieutenant whether it has happened. If the lieutenant says it has not, then Moses' words apply (Deut. 18. 22.): “He has spoken presumptuously; you shall not fear him.” If the lieutenant says it has happened, then it must not be contradicted. Similarly, if we only hear a report of a miracle rather than see it, we must ask the lawful Church—that is, its lawful head—how much we should trust the people reporting it. This is especially the situation of people living today under Christian sovereigns. In our times, I know of no one who has ever witnessed a wonder done by a person's charm, words, or prayer that someone of even average reason would consider supernatural. The issue is no longer whether an event we have seen is a miracle, or even whether a miracle we hear or read about really happened rather than being the work of a tongue or pen. Put simply, the question is whether the report is true or false. In judging this, each of us must rely not on private reason or conscience but on public reason: the judgment of God's supreme lieutenant. In fact, we have already made him our judge if we have given him sovereign power to do everything necessary for our peace and defense. Each individual always remains free in private thought to believe or disbelieve reports of miracles. He may consider what benefit the claim would bring to those who make or support it, and decide whether he thinks it a miracle or a lie. But when it comes to publicly professing that belief, private reason must give way to public reason, the reason of God's lieutenant. Who this lieutenant of God and Head of the Church is will be considered later, in its proper place.
CHAPTER XXXVIII. WHAT SCRIPTURE MEANS BY ETERNAL LIFE, HELL, SALVATION, THE WORLD TO COME, AND REDEMPTION