Stratagem 25
Original German
Er betrifft die Apagoge durch eine Instanz, exemplum in contrarium. Die επαγωγη, inductio bedarf einer großen Menge Fälle, um ihren allgemeinen Satz aufzustellen: die απαγωγη braucht nur einen einzigen Fall aufzustellen zu dem der Satz nicht paßt und er ist umgeworfen: ein solcher Fall heißt Instanz, ενστασις, exemplum in contrarium, instantia. Z. B. der Satz: „alle Wiederkäuer sind gehörnt“ wird umgestoßen durch die einzige Instanz der Kameele. Die Instanz ist ein Fall der Anwendung der allgemeinen Wahrheit, etwas unter den Hauptbegriff derselben zu subsumirendes, davon aber jene Wahrheit nicht gilt, und dadurch ganz umgestoßen wird. Allein dabei können Täuschungen vorgehn: wir haben also bei Instanzen, die der Gegner macht, folgendes zu beachten: 1) ob das Beispiel auch wirklich wahr ist: es giebt Probleme deren einzig wahre Lösung die ist, daß der Fall nicht wahr ist: z. B. viele Wunder, Geistergeschichten u. s. w.; 2) ob es auch wirklich unter den Begriff der aufgestellten Wahrheit gehört: das ist oft nur scheinbar und durch eine scharfe Distinktion zu lösen; 3) ob es auch wirklich in Widerspruch steht mit der aufgestellten Wahrheit: auch dies ist oft nur scheinbar.
Musean translation
Machine-assisted, directly from Deussen’s German edition (1923).
This concerns apagoge by a counterinstance, exemplum in contrarium. Induction requires a large number of cases to establish its general proposition; apagoge needs only to establish a single case to which the proposition does not apply, and it is overturned. Such a case is called a counterinstance, enstasis, exemplum in contrarium, instantia. For example, the proposition “All ruminants have horns” is overturned by the single counterinstance of camels. A counterinstance is a case in which a general truth is applied, something to be subsumed under its principal concept, but to which that truth does not apply, and by which it is therefore entirely overturned. Yet deception can occur here. When the opponent presents counterinstances, we must therefore consider: 1) whether the example is actually true. There are problems whose only true solution is that the case is not true—for example, many miracles, ghost stories, and so forth. 2) Whether it really belongs under the concept of the truth advanced: often this is only apparent and must be resolved by a sharp distinction. 3) Whether it really contradicts the truth advanced: this too is often only apparent.
Plain English translation
Machine-assisted, independently translated directly from Deussen’s German edition (1923).
This concerns refutation through a counterexample, exemplum in contrarium. Induction needs many cases to establish its general claim. Refutation needs only one case to which the claim does not apply, and the claim is overturned. Such a case is called a counterexample, enstasis, exemplum in contrarium, instantia. For instance, camels alone disprove the statement “All animals that chew the cud have horns.” A counterexample falls within the main concept covered by a general truth, but that truth does not hold for it. It therefore overturns the whole general claim. Yet this can involve deception. When the opponent gives counterexamples, check: 1) Is the example actually true? Sometimes the only true answer to a problem is that the case did not happen, as with many miracles and ghost stories. 2) Does the example really belong under the concept the general claim concerns? It often only seems to. A precise distinction can settle this. 3) Does it really contradict the general claim? Again, it often only seems to.
About this section
Stratagem 25 is part of The Art of Being Right by Arthur Schopenhauer. This page sets the German original beside 2 direct-source translations, so any line can be checked against the source. It is section 30 of 43 in the work, which is kept in the European tradition.
Open the work page for the full contents, every edition, and the download links, or go back to Explore to browse other complete works in the European tradition. The reader keeps your place when you are signed in and lets you compare the original with each translation, one edition at a time.