The Annals of the First Emperor of Qin

The First Emperor of Qin was the son of King Zhuangxiang of Qin. When King Zhuangxiang was a hostage from Qin in Zhao, he saw a woman belonging to Lü Buwei, liked her, and married her. She gave birth to the First Emperor. He was born in Handan in the first month of the forty-eighth year of King Zhao of Qin. At birth he was named Zheng and given the surname Zhao. When he was thirteen, King Zhuangxiang died, and Zheng succeeded him as King of Qin. By then Qin had annexed Ba, Shu, and Hanzhong. Beyond Wan it held Ying and had established Nanjun Commandery. In the north it had taken the land east of Shangjun and held the commanderies of Hedong, Taiyuan, and Shangdang. In the east it reached Xingyang; it had destroyed the two Zhou states and established Sanchuan Commandery. Lü Buwei was Chancellor. He was given a fief of a hundred thousand households and the title Lord Wenxin. He recruited guests and traveling scholars, hoping to use them to unite the world. Li Si was one of his retainers. Meng Ao, Wang Yi, and Lord Biao were generals. The king was young when he first took the throne, so he entrusted state affairs to his senior ministers. Jinyang rebelled.

In the first year of the First Emperor of Qin, General Meng Ao attacked and pacified Jinyang.

In the second year, Lord Biao led soldiers against Juan and cut off thirty thousand heads.

In the third year, Meng Ao attacked Han and took thirteen cities. Wang Yi died. In the tenth month, General Meng Ao attacked the Wei towns of Chang and Yougui. There was a severe famine that year.

In the fourth year, Qin captured Chang and Yougui. In the third month the army was disbanded. Qin hostages came home from Zhao, and the crown prince of Zhao left Qin and returned to his country. On the day gengyin in the tenth month, locusts came from the east and covered the sky. Disease spread across the land. Common people who turned in one thousand shi of grain were awarded one rank of nobility.

In the fifth year, General Meng Ao attacked Wei and took the cities of Suanzao, Yan, Xu, Changping, Yongqiu, and Shanyang. In all he captured twenty cities. Qin established Dongjun Commandery for the first time. There was thunder in winter.

In the sixth year, Han, Wei, Zhao, Wei, and Chu joined in attacking Qin and took Shouling. Qin sent out troops and the five states withdrew theirs. Qin took Wei and pressed toward Dongjun. Its ruler Jiao led his relatives to settle in Yewang, where they relied on the mountains to hold Wei's Henei region.

In the seventh year, a comet first appeared in the east, then was seen in the north, and in the fifth month was seen in the west. General Meng Ao died. Qin attacked Long, Gu, and Qingdu, then turned its troops against Ji. A comet appeared again in the west for sixteen days. The Queen Dowager Xia died.

In the eighth year, the king's younger brother Chengjiao, Lord Chang'an, led an army against Zhao but rebelled and died at Tunliu. All the army officers were beheaded, and the local people were moved to Lintao. General Bi died. The soldiers at Tunliu and Puhe rebelled, and his corpse was put on public display. Large numbers of fish came up the Yellow River. Light carts and heavily laden horses went east in search of food.

Lao Ai was made Lord Changxin. The territory of Shanyang was given to him for his residence. He was allowed free use of palaces, carriages, horses, clothing, parks, and hunting grounds. He decided every matter, great or small. The Henei and Taiyuan commanderies were also changed into Lao Ai's domain. In the ninth year a comet appeared, at times stretching across the sky. Qin attacked Yuan and Puyang in Wei. In the fourth month the king stayed at Yong. On the day jiyou he came of age, put on the cap, and took up a sword. Lord Changxin, Lao Ai, plotted a revolt and was discovered. He had forged the king's imperial seal and the queen dowager's seal to call out county soldiers, guards, official cavalry, Rong and Di chiefs and nobles, and his own retainers. He intended to attack Qinian Palace and start a rebellion. When the king learned of it, he ordered the Chancellor, Lord Changping, and Lord Changwen to call out troops against Lao Ai. They fought at Xianyang and cut off several hundred heads. All the fighters were granted noble rank, including the eunuchs who took part; they too received one rank. Lao Ai and his men were defeated and fled. The king immediately proclaimed throughout the state: whoever captured Lao Ai alive would receive one million coins; whoever killed him, five hundred thousand. Lao Ai and all his men were caught. The Guard Commander Jie, the Interior Scribe Si, the Assistant Archer Jie, the Grandee Ling Qi, and twenty others had their heads displayed on poles. Lao Ai was torn apart by carts and his remains displayed publicly; his entire family was wiped out. Among his retainers, those with lighter sentences were sentenced to hard labor gathering firewood for the shrines. More than four thousand families were stripped of noble rank and exiled to Shu, to settle at Fangling. In that month there was freezing cold, and some people died. Yang Duanhe attacked Yanshi. A comet appeared in the west and then in the north, extending south from the Dipper for eighty days. In the tenth year, Chancellor Lü Buwei was removed from office for his involvement in Lao Ai's case. Huan Yi became a general. Envoys from Qi and Zhao came and held a banquet. Mao Jiao of Qi advised the King of Qin: “Qin is now seeking to rule the whole world, but Your Majesty has gained a reputation for exiling your mother, the queen dowager. I fear that when the other rulers hear of it, they will turn against Qin.” The King of Qin then went to Yong to bring the queen dowager back to Xianyang, where she again lived in Ganquan Palace.

A major search was carried out, and an order went out expelling foreign guests. Li Si submitted an argument against the order, and it was withdrawn. Li Si then advised the King of Qin to take Han first in order to frighten the other states. The king sent him to Han. The King of Han was alarmed and discussed with Han Fei how to weaken Qin. Wei Liao of Daliang came to the King of Qin and said: “With Qin's strength, the other rulers are like the heads of commanderies and counties. I only fear that they may form an alliance and join forces to strike unexpectedly. That was how Zhibo, Fuchai, and King Min were destroyed. Your Majesty should not be stingy with money and goods. Bribe their powerful ministers to disrupt their plans. It will cost no more than three hundred thousand pieces of gold, and all the other states can be brought under your control.” The King of Qin followed his plan. He received Wei Liao with the courtesy due to an equal and wore the same clothes and ate and drank the same things as he did. Wei Liao said: “The King of Qin has a wasp-like nose, long eyes, a bird of prey's chest, and a jackal's voice. He has little kindness and the heart of a tiger or wolf. When pressed, he can easily humble himself before others, but when he gets what he wants he will just as easily devour them. I am a commoner, yet when he meets me he always lowers himself before me. If the King of Qin really gets his way in the world, everyone will become his captive. I cannot stay with him long.” He fled. The King of Qin noticed and insisted that he stay. He made Wei Liao Qin's chief military officer and ultimately followed his plans. Li Si also gained power.

In the eleventh year, Wang Jian, Huan Yi, and Yang Duanhe attacked Ye and took nine cities. Wang Jian attacked Eyu and Liaoyang, combining all his troops into one army. After eighteen days in command, Jian sent home the soldiers of the lowest pay grade and below; from every ten men he selected two to continue with the army in taking Ye and Anyang. Huan Yi commanded them. In the twelfth year, Lord Wenxin, Lü Buwei, died and was buried in secret. His retainers who attended his funeral were treated as follows: those from Jin were expelled; those from Qin with a salary of six hundred shi or more lost their noble rank and were exiled; those with a salary of five hundred shi or less who had not attended were exiled without losing their rank. An order declared: “From now on, anyone who handles state affairs as unlawfully as Lao Ai or Lü Buwei will have his entire household registered and dealt with in this way.” In autumn, the retainers of Lao Ai who had been exiled to Shu were allowed to return. At this time there was a severe drought across the land; rain finally fell between the sixth and eighth months.

In the thirteenth year, Huan Yi attacked Pingyang in Zhao, killed the Zhao general Hu Zhe, and cut off a hundred thousand heads. The king went to Henan. In the first month a comet appeared in the east. In the tenth month Huan Yi attacked Zhao. In the fourteenth year he attacked the Zhao army at Pingyang, took Yi'an, defeated the army, and killed its general. Huan Yi secured Pingyang and Wucheng. Han Fei came as an envoy to Qin. On Li Si's advice, Qin detained him, and he died at Yunyang. The King of Han asked to become Qin's subject.

In the fifteenth year, Qin called up a large army. One force went to Ye and another to Taiyuan, where it took Langmeng. There was an earthquake. In the ninth month of the sixteenth year, troops were sent to accept the territory of Nanyang in Han from its acting governor Teng. For the first time men were required to register their ages. Wei ceded land to Qin. Qin established Liyi. In the seventeenth year, Interior Scribe Teng attacked Han, captured its king An, and took all its territory. Qin made it a commandery named Yingchuan. There was an earthquake. The Queen Dowager Huayang died. The people suffered a severe famine.

In the eighteenth year, Qin mobilized a large army against Zhao. Wang Jian led forces from Shangdi down through Jingxing, while Yang Duanhe led forces from Henei. Qiang Hui attacked Zhao, and Yang Duanhe surrounded Handan. In the nineteenth year, Wang Jian and Qiang Hui finished conquering Zhao's Dongyang territory and captured the King of Zhao. They moved their troops toward Yan and camped at Zhongshan. The King of Qin went to Handan and had buried alive all those who had feuded with his mother's family when he was born in Zhao. On his return he traveled through Taiyuan and Shangjun. The First Emperor's mother, the queen dowager, died. Prince Jia of Zhao led several hundred members of his clan to Dai and made himself King of Dai. In the east he joined his forces with Yan and camped at Shanggu. There was a severe famine.

In the twentieth year, Crown Prince Dan of Yan was worried that Qin's army would reach his country. He was afraid and sent Jing Ke to assassinate the King of Qin. The king discovered the plot, had Jing Ke's body cut into pieces and displayed publicly, and sent Wang Jian and Xin Sheng against Yan. Yan and Dai raised troops against the Qin army, but Qin defeated Yan west of the Yi River. In the twenty-first year, Wang Ben attacked Jing. More soldiers were sent to Wang Jian's army; he defeated the crown prince's army, took Ji, the capital of Yan, and obtained Crown Prince Dan's head. The King of Yan withdrew east to Liaodong and ruled there. Wang Jian pleaded illness and old age and returned home. Xinzheng rebelled. Lord Changping was moved to Ying. Heavy snow fell, two feet and five inches deep.

In the twenty-second year, Wang Ben attacked Wei, channeling the waters of the Yellow River to flood Daliang. The city's walls collapsed, its king asked to surrender, and Qin took all its territory.

In the twenty-third year, the King of Qin summoned Wang Jian again and pressed him to come out of retirement and lead an attack on Jing. He took the land from Chen south to Pingyu and captured the King of Jing. The King of Qin traveled to Ying and Chen. Xiang Yan, a Jing general, made Lord Changping King of Jing and rebelled against Qin south of the Huai River. In the twenty-fourth year, Wang Jian and Meng Wu attacked Jing and defeated its army. Lord Changping died, and Xiang Yan killed himself.

In the twenty-fifth year, Qin mobilized a large army under Wang Ben. He attacked Yan in Liaodong and captured its king Xi. He returned to attack Dai and captured its king Jia. Wang Jian finished conquering Jing's lands south of the Yangtze. He subdued the Yue rulers and established Kuaiji Commandery. In the fifth month, there were great public feasts throughout the land.

In the twenty-sixth year, King Jian of Qi and his Chancellor Hou Sheng sent troops to guard their western border and cut off contact with Qin. Qin sent General Wang Ben south from Yan to attack Qi, and he captured King Jian.

When the King of Qin first united the lands under his rule, he ordered the Chancellor and Imperial Counselor to consider this statement: “The King of Han once handed over his lands and presented his seal, asking to become a dependent ruler. Then he broke the agreement and joined Zhao and Wei in an alliance against Qin. So we raised troops to punish him and captured their king. I thought this was good and hoped the fighting would stop. The King of Zhao sent his Chancellor Li Mu to make a treaty with us, so I sent back his hostage son. Then he broke the treaty and rebelled against us in Taiyuan. We raised troops to punish him and captured his king. Prince Jia of Zhao then declared himself King of Dai, so we sent troops to destroy him. The King of Wei first agreed to submit to Qin, but then planned an attack with Han and Zhao. Our troops punished him and defeated him. The King of Jing offered us the lands west of Qingyang, but then broke the agreement and attacked our Nanjun Commandery. So we sent troops to punish him, captured his king, and secured all his land. The King of Yan was confused and disorderly. His crown prince Dan secretly sent Jing Ke to commit murder. Our troops punished him and destroyed his state. The King of Qi followed Hou Sheng's advice, cut off Qin's envoys, and planned a rebellion. Our troops punished him, captured the king, and pacified Qi. Though I am only one insignificant man, I raised troops to punish violence and rebellion. Thanks to the spirits of my ancestors, all six kings have paid for their crimes, and the world is at peace. But unless the titles are changed, there is no way to honor this success and hand its memory down to later generations. Discuss a title for the emperor.” Chancellor Wang, Imperial Counselor Jie, Commandant of Justice Li Si, and the others said: “In the past, each of the Five Emperors ruled a territory a thousand li across. Beyond it were lords of the outer and foreign territories. Some came to court and others did not; the Son of Heaven could not control them. Now Your Majesty has raised an army for a just cause, punished cruel criminals, and pacified the whole world. All the lands within the seas have become commanderies and counties, and laws and orders come from one ruler. This has never happened since earliest times, and the Five Emperors did not achieve it. We have respectfully consulted with the Erudites, who say: ‘In ancient times there was a Heavenly Sovereign, an Earthly Sovereign, and a Great Sovereign. The Great Sovereign was the most honored.’ At the risk of our lives, we propose that the king take the honored title ‘Great Sovereign’; that his commands be called ‘decrees,’ his orders ‘edicts,’ and that the Son of Heaven call himself ‘We.’” The king said: “Leave out ‘Great’ and keep ‘Sovereign.’ Add the ancient title ‘Emperor,’ making the title ‘Sovereign Emperor.’ The rest can be as you propose.” His decree said: “Approved.” He gave King Zhuangxiang the posthumous title Supreme Sovereign. He issued this decree: “I have heard that in remote antiquity rulers had titles but no posthumous names. In later antiquity they had titles and after death were given names based on their conduct. That lets a son judge his father and a minister judge his ruler. It makes no sense, and I will not accept it. From now on, end the practice of posthumous names. I am the First Emperor. Later rulers will be numbered the Second, the Third, up to the ten-thousandth generation, passing the rule on without end.”

The First Emperor applied the theory that the five powers succeed one another. He held that Zhou had the power of fire and that Qin was replacing Zhou with the power that conquers it. This was the beginning of the power of water. He changed the start of the year, making court celebrations begin on the first day of the tenth month. Clothes, horsehair standards, emblems, and flags all favored black. Six became the standard number: tallies and ceremonial caps were six inches long, carriages were six feet long, a pace was six feet, and six horses drew a carriage. He renamed the Yellow River the Virtuous Water, seeing it as a sign that the power of water had begun. He was stern, determined, and severe. Every matter was settled by law, with harsh penalties and no kindness, compassion, moderation, or justice. In this way he followed the reckoning of the five powers. He tightened the laws and did not pardon people whose sentences had been long in force.

Chancellor Wang and others said: “The other states have only just been defeated. Yan, Qi, and Jing are far away. Unless we appoint kings there, we cannot keep them under control. We ask that your sons be made kings, if Your Majesty will approve.” The First Emperor put this proposal to the ministers, who all thought it wise. Commandant of Justice Li Si said: “Kings Wen and Wu of Zhou gave fiefs to many sons, brothers, and men of the same clan. Later their descendants grew distant and attacked one another like enemies. The feudal lords killed and fought each other, and the Zhou Son of Heaven could not stop them. Now all the lands within the seas have been united thanks to Your Majesty's divine power and made into commanderies and counties. Your sons and deserving ministers can be richly rewarded from public taxes. That is enough and makes them easy to control. If no one has reason to oppose the government, the world will be peaceful. Appointing feudal lords is unwise.” The First Emperor said: “Everyone has suffered from endless war because there were lords and kings. Thanks to our ancestors, the world has just been pacified. If we establish kingdoms again, we plant the seeds of war. How could we then expect peace? The Commandant of Justice is right.”

He divided the world into thirty-six commanderies, each with a governor, a military commander, and an inspector. He renamed the common people “black-haired people.” Great public feasts were held. He collected weapons from across the land and gathered them at Xianyang, where they were melted down to make bells and their stands, and twelve bronze figures, each weighing one thousand shi. These were placed in the palace court. He standardized laws, measuring vessels, weights, and lengths. Carriage axles were set at a uniform width. Writing used the same characters everywhere. The territory reached east to the sea and Korea, west to Lintao and the lands of the Qiang, south to the land where doors face north, and north to the Yellow River, which served as a border barrier. It included the Yin Mountains and extended to Liaodong. He moved a hundred and twenty thousand wealthy and powerful households from across the land to Xianyang. All the ancestral shrines, as well as Zhangtai and Shanglin, stood south of the Wei River. Whenever Qin defeated another state, it made a copy of its palaces on the northern slope of Xianyang overlooking the Wei to the south. From Yong Gate east to the Jing and Wei rivers, the halls, covered walkways, and surrounding galleries joined one another. The beautiful women, bells, and drums taken from the other rulers filled them.

In the twenty-seventh year, the First Emperor toured Longxi and Beidi, went out to Mount Jitou, and passed through Huizhong. He then built Xin Palace south of the Wei River, renaming it the Pole Temple to represent the pole of heaven. A road was opened from the Pole Temple to Mount Li, and a front hall was built at Ganquan. A covered passageway connected it to Xianyang. That year everyone was awarded one rank of nobility. Highways were built.

In the twenty-eighth year, the First Emperor traveled east through the commanderies and counties and climbed Mount Yi near Zou. He set up a stone monument and discussed with scholars from Lu the words to be carved on it praising Qin's achievements. He also discussed sacrifices to heaven and earth and offerings to mountains and rivers. Then he climbed Mount Tai, set up a stone, performed the feng sacrifice, and offered worship. On his way down a sudden storm broke. He took shelter under a tree and awarded it the rank of Fifth Grandee. He performed the shan sacrifice at Liangfu. The inscription carved on the stone said:

When the emperor came to the throne, he made decrees and clarified laws, and his ministers set their affairs in order. In the twenty-sixth year he first united the world, and everyone submitted. He went in person to inspect the people in distant places, climbed this Mount Tai, and surveyed the far eastern horizon. His accompanying ministers reflected on his deeds, considered the beginnings of his work, and respectfully praised his achievements. The principles of government are in operation; all kinds of production follow their proper course, each according to a set pattern. Great justice shines clearly and is handed down to future generations, who must follow it without change. The emperor himself is wise. Once he had pacified the world, he did not relax his efforts at governing. He rose early and went to sleep late, established lasting benefits, and devoted himself to promoting instruction. His teachings and principles are spread abroad. Far and near, everyone is properly governed and follows his wise will. The difference between high and low ranks is clear; men and women observe their proper conduct and carefully fulfill their duties. The division between the household and the outside world is plain; all is pure and orderly, and this will reach later generations. His transforming influence will continue without end. They will obey his final decrees and always heed his solemn warnings.

Then he traveled along the coast east of the Bohai Sea, passed Huang and Chui, reached the end of Chengshan, and climbed Mount Zhifu. There he erected a stone praising Qin's achievements and went on.

He climbed Langya in the south, liked it greatly, and stayed three months. He moved thirty thousand households of common people to the foot of Langya Terrace and exempted them from taxes and labor duties for twelve years. He built Langya Terrace and erected a carved stone praising Qin's achievements and setting out his intentions. It said:

In the twenty-eighth year the emperor began his work. He set laws and measures straight as the standard for everything. He clarified human affairs and united fathers and sons. With wisdom, understanding, kindness, and justice he made the principles clear. He traveled east to care for the eastern lands and inspect the soldiers. Once his great work was complete, he came to the sea. The emperor's achievement is to encourage hard work in the essential occupations. He promotes farming and removes unproductive pursuits, making the common people prosperous. Beneath the whole sky, people unite their hearts and direct their wills toward him. Tools and measures are uniform; written characters are the same. Everywhere the sun and moon shine, everywhere boats and carts can carry people, everyone lives out a full life and gets what they desire. The emperor acts at the right time. He corrects and orders different customs, crossing rivers and traveling across the land. He cares for the common people and never rests, morning or evening. He removes doubts and establishes laws, so all know what to avoid. Regional officials have separate duties and the workings of government are simple. Every action is appropriate; everything goes as planned. With the emperor's clear sight he examines all four directions. The honored and humble, the high and low, do not step beyond their proper rank. Langya does not tolerate wrongdoing; all strive to be honest and good. All, great and small, work with all their strength; no one dares to be lazy or neglectful. Far and near, open and hidden places, all are devoted to serious and orderly conduct. They are upright, sincere, and loyal; their work follows a steady pattern. The emperor's power keeps the four farthest regions secure. He punishes disorder and removes harm; he promotes benefits and brings good fortune. Work is arranged to suit the seasons, and all products increase. The common people live in peace and have no need for weapons. Relatives protect one another, and there are no more raiders or thieves. They gladly follow his teaching and all know the laws and standards. Everything within the six directions is the emperor's land. In the west it crosses the moving sands; in the south it reaches the lands where doors face north. In the east is the Eastern Sea, and in the north it extends beyond Daxia. Wherever people have set foot, all are his subjects. His achievements exceed those of the Five Emperors. His kindness even reaches cattle and horses; all receive its benefits and live securely in their homes.

When the King of Qin had united the world and taken the title of emperor, he traveled east to care for the eastern lands and reached Langya. The nobles Wang Li, Lord Wucheng, and Wang Ben, Lord Tongwu; the nobles of another rank Zhao Hai, Lord Jiancheng, Cheng, Lord Changwu, and Feng Wuze, Lord Wuxin; Chancellors Kui Lin and Wang Wan; ministers Li Si and Wang Wu; and the Fifth Grandees Zhao Ying and Yang Jiu accompanied him and discussed matters with him by the sea. They said: “The emperors of antiquity held no more than a thousand li of land. The other lords each guarded his own fief. Some came to court and others did not. They attacked one another and spread disorder, and their cruel wars never stopped; still they carved inscriptions on metal and stone as records of themselves. The Five Emperors and Three Kings of ancient times had different ideas about instruction and unclear laws and standards. They borrowed the authority of spirits to deceive distant peoples. Their deeds did not live up to their names, so their rule did not last. Before they died, other rulers broke away and rebelled, and their laws and orders went unenforced. Now the emperor has united all the lands within the seas, made them into commanderies and counties, and brought peace to the world. He has honored and brought glory to the ancestral temples, followed the right way and practiced virtue, and fully earned his exalted title. We ministers together praise the emperor's achievements and carve them in metal and stone as a public standard.”

Afterward, Xu Fu and others from Qi submitted a memorial. They said that three sacred mountains stood in the sea, named Penglai, Fangzhang, and Yingzhou, where immortals lived. They asked permission to purify themselves and seek the mountains with boys and girls. Xu Fu was therefore sent out to recruit several thousand boys and girls and sail into the sea in search of immortals.

On his return, the First Emperor passed through Pengcheng. He purified himself and offered prayers and sacrifices, hoping to retrieve the Zhou ritual cauldron from the Si River. He sent a thousand men to dive for it, but they did not find it. He then crossed the Huai River to the southwest and went to Hengshan and Nanjun Commandery. He sailed down the Yangtze to the shrine at Mount Xiang. A strong wind nearly prevented him from crossing. The emperor asked an Erudite: “Who is the spirit Lord Xiang?” The Erudite answered: “I have heard that she was Yao's daughter and Shun's wife, and that she is buried here.” The First Emperor became very angry and ordered three thousand convicts to cut down all the trees on Mount Xiang, leaving its soil bare and red. The emperor returned from Nanjun through Wuguan Pass.

In the twenty-ninth year, the First Emperor toured the east. At Bolangsha in Yangwu he was startled by an attacker. The attacker could not be found, so he ordered a wide search across the land for ten days.

He climbed Mount Zhifu and carved a stone. Its inscription said:

In the twenty-ninth year, in the middle of spring, warmth was just beginning. The emperor traveled east, climbed Mount Zhifu on his tour, and looked out across the sea. His accompanying ministers praised the sight, reflected on his fine achievements, and recalled the start of his work. This great sage established government and fixed laws and standards, making the rules of order clear. He instructed the other rulers, spread enlightened kindness, and made justice and reason plain. The six states were crooked and corrupt, endlessly greedy and violent, and never stopped their cruel killing. The emperor pitied the people and sent out an army to punish them, showing the strength of his forces and his virtue. He punished them justly and kept his word; his power spread far and wide, and all submitted. He destroyed the strong and violent, rescued the common people, and secured the four farthest regions. He spread clear laws everywhere and ordered the whole world by them as a lasting standard. How great he is! Throughout the world, people follow his wise will. His ministers praise his achievements and ask to carve them on stone as a permanent record of his standards.

The inscription on the eastern overlook said:

In the twenty-ninth year the emperor toured in spring and inspected distant regions. When he reached the edge of the sea he climbed Mount Zhifu and stood in the light of the morning sun. His ministers surveyed the broad and beautiful view. They all reflected on the principles of his government and its perfect clarity. When his wise laws were first put in place, they settled the territory within the borders and punished powerful oppressors outside them. His military power spread far and shook the four farthest regions; he captured and destroyed the six kings. He united the world openly, ended disasters and harm, and put weapons away forever. The emperor's clear virtue puts all the lands in order, and he never tires of watching and listening. He established great principles and made equipment and tools clear, all with regulated signs and banners. Officials keep to their assigned duties and each knows what to do, so nothing is left uncertain. The common people have changed their ways; near and far they follow the same standards, surpassing all earlier ages. With regular duties established, his successors will continue his work and uphold his wise rule for a long time. His ministers praise his virtue and respectfully recount his great deeds, and ask to carve them on Mount Zhifu.

He turned back, went on to Langya, and returned by way of Shangdang.

In the thirtieth year, nothing happened.

In the twelfth month of the thirty-first year, the year-end sacrifice was renamed “Jia Ping,” or Auspicious Peace. Each community of commoners received six shi of rice and two sheep. The First Emperor traveled around Xianyang in disguise with four armed men. At night they met robbers at Lanchi and were cornered. His guards killed the robbers, and a wide search was conducted in the Guanzhong region for twenty days. Rice cost sixteen hundred coins per shi.

In the thirty-second year, the First Emperor went to Jieshi and sent Lu Sheng, a man from Yan, to look for Xianmen and Gaoshi. He carved an inscription at Jieshi Gate. He demolished city walls and broke open embankments. The inscription said:

He raised armies to punish and kill the lawless and end rebellion. By force he destroyed violent rebels; by civil rule he restored the innocent, and all the people willingly submitted. He kindly recognized service and rewarded even cattle and horses; his generosity enriched the land. The emperor exerted his power and brought the other rulers under his rule. For the first time all were united in great peace. He tore down city walls, opened up waterways and their barriers, and cleared away obstacles. Once the land was secured, the people no longer had to serve in forced labor, and everyone lived under his protection. Men enjoyed their fields and women worked at their trades; each occupation had its proper order. His kindness reached every kind of production; long-established fields and newly opened farmland alike were secure. His ministers praised his great deeds and asked to carve them on this stone, to pass down his standards.

He sent Han Zhong, Hou Gong, and Shi Sheng to seek the immortals and their medicine for eternal life. The First Emperor toured the northern border and returned by way of Shangjun. Lu Sheng came back from his voyage into the sea. On the subject of spirits, he presented records and diagrams that said, “The Hu will destroy Qin.” The First Emperor then ordered General Meng Tian to raise three hundred thousand men and attack the Hu in the north, taking the lands south of the Yellow River.

In the thirty-third year, he called up people who had once fled from justice, men living with their wives' families, and merchants to seize the lands of Luliang. He established Guilin, Xiang, and Nanhai commanderies and sent convicts to garrison them. In the northwest he drove back the Xiongnu. Along the Yellow River eastward from Yuzhong to the Yin Mountains he established thirty-four counties and built fortified settlements beside the river as a barrier. He also sent Meng Tian across the Yellow River to take Gaoque, Yangshan, and Beijiazhong. He built lookout posts and defenses to drive out the Rong people. He moved exiles to populate the newly founded counties. Worship at shrines was forbidden. A bright star appeared in the west.

In the thirty-fourth year, officials who had handled trials unfairly were sentenced to work on the Great Wall and in the Southern Yue region.

The First Emperor held a banquet at Xianyang Palace. Seventy Erudites stepped forward to wish him long life. Zhou Qingchen, the director of the palace attendants, praised him: “In the past Qin's territory was no more than a thousand li across. Thanks to Your Majesty's divine wisdom, you have pacified all the lands within the seas and driven out the foreign peoples. Everywhere the sun and moon shine, all submit to you. You have turned the other states into commanderies and counties, so everyone lives in peace and happiness without fearing war. This will last ten thousand generations. Since earliest times, no one has equaled Your Majesty's power and achievements.” The First Emperor was pleased. Chunyu Yue, an Erudite from Qi, stepped forward and said: “I have heard that the Yin and Zhou kings ruled for over a thousand years because they gave fiefs to their sons, brothers, and deserving ministers, who served as their supporting branches. Your Majesty now possesses the whole world, yet your sons and brothers are commoners. If ministers like Tian Chang or the Six Ministers should suddenly appear, how could you save yourself without any supporters? I have never heard that anyone who fails to learn from the past can last long. Qingchen now flatters you to your face, making your errors worse. He is not a loyal minister.” The First Emperor referred the proposal to his ministers. Chancellor Li Si said: “The Five Emperors did not copy one another, nor did the Three Dynasties. Each governed in its own way, not because they opposed one another, but because times had changed. Your Majesty has begun a great work and established achievements that will last ten thousand generations. A foolish scholar like Yue cannot understand them. Besides, Yue is talking about the Three Dynasties. Why should we follow their example? Formerly the states fought one another and eagerly recruited traveling scholars. Now the world is settled and all laws and orders come from one government. Common people should apply their strength at home to farming and crafts, and officials should study the laws and prohibitions. Instead, these scholars study the past rather than the present. They criticize our age and confuse the common people. I, your Chancellor Li Si, speak at the risk of my life: In ancient times the world was divided and no one could unite it. The other rulers arose everywhere. People talked of the past to attack the present, dressing up empty words to confuse reality. Each praised his private school of thought to criticize what the ruler had established. Now the emperor has united the world, distinguished right from wrong, and fixed a single authority. But people privately study together and criticize the laws and teachings. When an order is issued, each discusses it according to his own school. At court they privately disagree; outside they criticize it in the streets. They seek fame by showing off to the ruler, take pride in unusual views, and lead the people below them to spread slander. Unless we prohibit this, the ruler's authority will decline at the top and factions will form below. It is best to forbid it. I ask that the records kept by historians, other than those of Qin, all be burned. Except for the books in the charge of the Erudites, anyone in the world who keeps the Songs, the Documents, or the writings of the various schools must bring them to the governors and military commanders to be burned together. Anyone who dares discuss the Songs and Documents with another person is to be executed in the marketplace. Anyone who uses the past to criticize the present is to have his family killed. An official who knows of this and does not report it will receive the same punishment. Anyone who has not burned his books thirty days after the order is issued will be branded on the face and sentenced to labor on the walls. Books on medicine, divination, and growing trees will not be destroyed. Anyone who wants to learn the laws and orders should take officials as his teachers.” The emperor's decree said: “Approved.”

In the thirty-fifth year, a road was cleared from Jiuyuan to Yunyang, cutting through mountains and filling valleys to make it straight. The First Emperor felt that Xianyang had too many people and the palaces of earlier kings were too small. He said: “I have heard that King Wen of Zhou made his capital at Feng and King Wu at Hao. The land between Feng and Hao is the proper site for an emperor's capital.” He began building a palace for court audiences in Shanglin Park, south of the Wei River. The first building was the front hall of Epang Palace. It was five hundred paces from east to west and fifty zhang from north to south. Its upper floor could seat ten thousand people, and a flag five zhang tall could stand underneath. Elevated walkways ran around it, and one led directly from beneath the hall to the Southern Mountains. The summit of the mountains was marked out to serve as a gate tower. He built a covered walkway across the Wei River from Epang to Xianyang, representing the sky's elevated passage across the Milky Way from the pole star to the constellation Yingshi. Epang Palace was not yet finished. Once it was finished, he intended to choose a better name for it. Because it was being built at Epang, people throughout the world called it Epang Palace. More than seven hundred thousand castrated men and convicts sentenced to hard labor were divided between work on Epang Palace and Mount Li. Stone for the burial chambers was brought from the northern mountains, and timber was shipped in from Shu and Jing. There were altogether three hundred palaces within the passes and more than four hundred outside. He erected a stone at Qu on the shore of the Eastern Sea to mark Qin's eastern gate. He moved thirty thousand families to Liyi and fifty thousand to Yunyang; all were exempted from taxes and service for ten years.

Lu Sheng told the First Emperor: “We have searched for the magic herbs, strange medicines, and immortals but never found them. It appears that some force is keeping them away. According to the methods of our craft, a ruler should sometimes travel in disguise to avoid evil spirits. When the evil spirits are driven off, a true immortal will come. If the ruler's ministers know where he lives, this interferes with his spiritual power. A true immortal can go into water without getting wet or into fire without burning, ride above the clouds, and live as long as heaven and earth. Now Your Majesty governs the world but has not yet achieved calm detachment. I ask that you keep your residence secret. Then you may be able to obtain the medicine of eternal life.” The First Emperor said: “I admire the true immortals. I shall call myself ‘True Immortal’ instead of ‘We.’” He then ordered the 270 palaces and towers within two hundred li of Xianyang to be connected by raised and enclosed passageways. Curtains, bells, drums, and beautiful women filled them, each kept in its assigned place without being moved. Anyone who revealed where the emperor went would be put to death. When the First Emperor visited Liangshan Palace, he looked down from the mountain and saw that the Chancellor had many carriages and riders. He disliked it. Someone in the palace told the Chancellor, who afterward reduced the size of his escort. The First Emperor was angry and said: “Someone in the palace has leaked my words.” An investigation was held, but no one confessed. He ordered everyone who had been nearby at the time arrested and killed. From then on nobody knew where he was traveling. He conducted government business and gave his ministers decisions on all matters at Xianyang Palace.

Hou Sheng and Lu Sheng discussed the emperor together: “The First Emperor is naturally harsh, stubborn, and determined to do things his own way. He rose from among the other rulers and united the world. Now that he has got his wish, he thinks that no one in history has ever equaled him. He relies entirely on the officials who handle criminal cases and gives them his favor. The seventy Erudites are only there to fill positions; he does not use them. The Chancellor and other senior ministers receive decisions already made and depend on the emperor to settle questions. The emperor enjoys using punishments and executions to show his power. Everyone fears punishment and clings to a salary, so no one dares to speak honestly. The emperor does not hear about his errors and grows more arrogant every day. His subjects cower and deceive him to win his favor. Qin law says that anyone who practices more than one magical method and fails to get results must be put to death. Yet as many as three hundred men observe the stars and heavenly vapors. They are all capable men, but they fear breaking taboos and flatter him instead of telling him frankly where he is wrong. Every affair in the world, great or small, is decided by the emperor. He even weighs the documents he reads by the shi. There is a daily quota, and until he meets it he cannot rest, day or night. He is so greedy for power. We cannot search for the medicine of immortality for him.” They fled. On learning of their escape, the First Emperor grew furious and said: “Earlier I collected all the books in the world that were of no use and destroyed them. I summoned very many scholars and practitioners of magical arts, hoping to bring about peace. The magicians were to refine substances in search of strange medicines. Now I hear that Han Zhong left without reporting back. Xu Fu and the others have spent tens of millions, yet have found no medicine; every day I hear fresh reports of their dishonest schemes for profit. I honored Lu Sheng and the others and gave them generous rewards, but now they slander me and add to my bad reputation. As for the scholars in Xianyang, I have sent people to investigate them in secret. Some are spreading wild stories to confuse the common people.” He sent the Imperial Counselors to question all the scholars. The scholars implicated one another, and more than 460 who had broken the prohibitions were identified. They were all buried alive at Xianyang. He made this known throughout the land as a warning to others. He sent even more convicted people into exile on the border. Fusu, the First Emperor's eldest son, advised him: “The world has only recently been pacified, and people in distant regions are not yet settled. These scholars all study and recite Confucius's teachings. If Your Majesty punishes them severely under the law, I fear the world will become unsettled. Please consider this.” The First Emperor was angry and sent Fusu north to oversee Meng Tian in Shangjun.

In the thirty-sixth year, Mars stayed in the constellation Heart. A falling star landed in Dongjun and became a stone. Someone among the common people carved on it: “The First Emperor will die and the land will be divided.” When the emperor heard, he sent an Imperial Counselor to investigate, but no one confessed. He had everyone living near the stone arrested and killed, and had the stone burned and broken down. The First Emperor was unhappy. He had the Erudites compose poems about immortals and true immortals and the places he had visited in his travels, and ordered musicians to sing and play them. In autumn, an envoy returning from east of the passes passed along the Pingshu Road at Huayin by night. Someone blocked his way, holding a jade disk, and said: “Deliver this to the Lord of Haochi for me.” The person added: “The ancestral dragon will die this year.” The envoy asked why, but the person suddenly vanished, leaving the disk behind. The envoy presented it with a full report. The First Emperor was silent for a long while, then said: “A mountain spirit knows only about the coming year's events.” Later he said: “The ancestral dragon means the first of men.” He had the imperial treasury inspect the disk. It proved to be the one he had dropped into the river when crossing it in the twenty-eighth year. He then consulted the diviners and received a sign that travel and resettlement would be fortunate. He moved thirty thousand families to Yuzhong on the northern Yellow River and awarded them one rank of nobility.

On the day guichou in the tenth month of the thirty-seventh year, the First Emperor set out on a tour. Li Si, the Left Chancellor, went with him; Quji, the Right Chancellor, stayed behind. His youngest son Huhai loved and admired him and asked to come; the emperor agreed. In the eleventh month they reached Yunmeng and made offerings from a distance to Yu Shun at Mount Jiuyi. They sailed down the Yangtze, looked at Jike, and crossed Haizhu. They passed Danyang and reached Qiantang. At the Zhe River they found rough water, so they went 120 li west and crossed at a narrow place. He climbed Mount Kuaiji, offered a sacrifice to Great Yu, and made offerings toward the Southern Sea. He set up a stone with an inscription praising Qin's achievements. It read:

The emperor's great achievements have pacified and united the whole world, and his kindness will last a long time. In the thirty-seventh year he traveled in person throughout the land and surveyed distant places. He climbed Mount Kuaiji to make his inspection and announce his teachings about local customs, and the common people behaved with solemn care. His ministers praised his achievements, reviewed his deeds from their beginnings, and recalled his brilliant first acts. When Qin's wise ruler took control, he first fixed the names of punishments and made the former statutes clear. He set the laws and standards in order and assigned offices and duties carefully, establishing lasting rules. The six kings acted alone and broke their word. Greedy, harsh, arrogant, and fierce, they relied on their peoples to make themselves strong. They acted cruelly at will and, proud of their power, repeatedly raised armies. They secretly exchanged envoys to form an alliance, and their actions were crooked and improper. At home they planned deceitful schemes; abroad they came to invade the border, starting disaster. The emperor's just power punished them and put an end to their violent rebellion, destroying the troublemakers. His wise power is broad and thorough; his benefits reach without limit throughout the six directions. The emperor has united the world and hears every matter; all is clear, near and far. He governs everything, examines the facts, and gives each thing its proper name. High and low alike have access to him; good and bad are presented openly, and nothing is hidden. He examines and proclaims what is right. If a woman marries while she has a son, she betrays her dead husband and is unfaithful. He keeps men and women apart and forbids sexual misconduct so they live faithfully and honestly. If a husband has sex in another household like a breeding boar, killing him is no crime; men must follow the rules of justice. If a wife runs off and remarries, her son no longer regards her as his mother. All are transformed into honest, pure people. His great government washes away bad customs; the whole world follows his example and benefits from his fine rules. All obey the standards, living in peace and working diligently, and no one disobeys an order. The common people behave properly and take pleasure in sharing one set of rules; they gladly preserve great peace. Later generations will respectfully follow the laws; their rule will last without end, and carriages and boats will not overturn. His accompanying ministers praise his great deeds and ask to carve this stone and leave a brilliant, honored inscription for the future.

On his return he passed through Wu and crossed the river at Jiangcheng. He followed the seacoast north to Langya. Xu Fu and other magicians had gone out to sea to look for the medicine of immortality. Years had passed without success, and they had spent a great deal. Fearing punishment, they lied: “We could obtain the medicine on Penglai, but huge sharks keep troubling us, and we cannot reach it. Please let expert archers come with us to shoot them with repeating crossbows when they appear.” The First Emperor dreamed that he fought a sea spirit in human form. When he asked an Erudite to interpret the dream, the man said: “Water spirits cannot be seen; large fish and dragons are their signs. Your Majesty has been careful in your prayers and sacrifices, but this evil spirit should be driven off. Then good spirits may come.” So he ordered the men going out to sea to bring gear for catching huge fish, while he himself waited with a repeating crossbow to shoot any large fish that appeared. Traveling north from Langya to Mount Rongcheng, he saw none. At Mount Zhifu he saw a huge fish and shot one dead. He continued west along the coast.

He reached Pingyuan Ford and fell ill. The First Emperor disliked talk of death, so none of his ministers dared discuss it. As his illness grew worse, he wrote a sealed letter to his son Fusu: “Come to Xianyang to meet my funeral procession and bury me.” The letter was sealed and kept by Zhao Gao, director of the imperial carriage office, who was serving as keeper of the seals and tallies. It had not yet been given to a messenger. On the day bingyin in the seventh month, the First Emperor died at the Sand Hill Terrace. Chancellor Li Si feared that if the emperor's death became known away from the capital, the princes and the whole country might rise in rebellion. He kept it secret and made no announcement of mourning. The coffin was placed in the emperor's enclosed carriage. The favored eunuchs continued to ride beside it and serve meals at every stop. Officials submitted business as usual, and the eunuchs issued approval from inside the carriage. Only Huhai, Zhao Gao, and five or six favored eunuchs knew the emperor had died. Zhao Gao had earlier taught Huhai writing and the laws and regulations concerning criminal cases, and Huhai privately favored him. Gao then conspired in secret with Huhai and Chancellor Li Si to destroy the First Emperor's sealed letter to Fusu. They instead falsely claimed that Li Si had received a final decree from the emperor at Sand Hill appointing Huhai crown prince. They forged another letter to Fusu and Meng Tian, listing their crimes and ordering them to kill themselves. The details appear in Li Si's biography. The party traveled by way of Jingxing to Jiuyuan. The weather was hot and the emperor's carriage began to smell, so an order was given for the attendants to load a shi of salted fish on each carriage to hide the smell.

They followed the Straight Road to Xianyang, where the death was announced. Crown Prince Huhai took the throne as the Second Emperor. In the ninth month, the First Emperor was buried at Mount Li. When he first took the throne he had begun digging at Mount Li. After he united the world, more than seven hundred thousand laborers were sent there from across the land. They dug down to the third underground spring, poured bronze to enclose the burial chamber, and filled it with copies of palaces, towers, officials, rare utensils, and precious and strange objects. Craftsmen were ordered to make mechanical crossbows that would shoot anyone who broke in and approached. They used mercury to represent the hundred streams, the great rivers, and the sea, with mechanisms to make it flow between them. Above were representations of the heavens, and below a map of the earth. They used oil from sea creatures for lamps, expecting them to burn for a long time. The Second Emperor said: “It would not be right to let the women in the former emperor's harem who have no children leave.” He ordered all of them to die with him; many died. Once the burial was complete, someone said that the craftsmen who had made the mechanisms knew about the buried treasures and might reveal them, since the treasures were so valuable. When the main ceremony was over and the treasures were placed inside, they closed the inner passageway and lowered the outer gate, sealing all the craftsmen inside. None came out again. Trees and grass were planted to make the tomb look like a mountain.

In the first year of his reign, the Second Emperor was twenty-one years old. Zhao Gao became Chamberlain of the Palace and was put in charge of affairs. The Second Emperor issued an edict increasing the offerings at the First Emperor's resting place and temple and the rites for sacrifices to mountains, rivers, and the hundred spirits. He ordered the ministers to discuss how to honor the First Emperor's temple. They all bowed their heads and said: “In antiquity the Son of Heaven had seven temples, a feudal lord five, and a grandee three. Even after ten thousand generations they were not to be removed or destroyed. Now the First Emperor's temple is the highest. All lands within the four seas bring tribute; the offerings have been increased and the rites are complete. Nothing more can be added. Some of the earlier kings' temples are in Yong in the west, others in Xianyang. According to the rites, the Son of Heaven alone should pour offerings and sacrifice at the First Emperor's temple. The temples from Duke Xiang onward should be removed. Seven temples will remain in all. The ministers will present sacrifices according to the rites, honoring the First Emperor's temple as the ancestral temple of the imperial line.” The emperor once more called himself “We.”

The Second Emperor discussed his plans with Zhao Gao: “I am young and have only just taken the throne. The common people have not yet gathered around me. The former emperor traveled through the commanderies and counties to show his strength and bring all the lands under his control through fear. If I sit quietly and do not tour them, I will appear weak and cannot rule the world as my subjects.” In spring the Second Emperor traveled east through the commanderies and counties, with Li Si accompanying him. He reached Jieshi, followed the coast south to Kuaiji, and had additions cut into every inscription stone set up by the First Emperor. Beside the inscriptions he placed the names of the great ministers who had accompanied him, to make clear the former emperor's great achievements and fine qualities:

The emperor said: “All the inscriptions on metal and stone describe what the First Emperor did. I have now inherited his title, but the inscriptions do not call him ‘the First Emperor.’ In the distant future they may look as though his successor made them. This does not properly honor his great achievements and fine qualities.” Chancellors Li Si and Quji, and Imperial Counselor De, said at the risk of their lives: “We ask to carve the text of this edict in full on the stones, so it will be clear. We make this request at the risk of our lives.” The emperor's decree said: “Approved.”

He went as far as Liaodong and then returned.

The Second Emperor followed Zhao Gao's advice and made the laws and orders stricter. He secretly told Gao: “The great ministers do not obey me, the officials are still powerful, and the princes will certainly fight me. What should I do?” Gao answered: “I have long wanted to speak of this but did not dare. The former emperor's senior ministers all come from families renowned and honored for generations across the land. Their achievements have been passed down for a long time. I was originally lowly and insignificant. By Your Majesty's favor I was raised to high office and put in charge of palace affairs. The great ministers are dissatisfied. They obey me only in appearance; in their hearts they do not accept me. Now that Your Majesty is away, use the opportunity to investigate wrongdoing by commandery governors and military commanders and execute the guilty. This will show your power to the whole world and remove those whom you have always disliked. This is no time to take scholars as your models; decisions must be made by force. Please act now without hesitation, before the ministers can plan together. An enlightened ruler raises up ordinary people, gives high rank to the humble and wealth to the poor, and brings those far away close. Then his officials and people will rally around him and his state will be secure.” The Second Emperor said: “Good.” He began executing great ministers and princes. Officials and their relatives, even those close to the ruler in the three palace offices, were implicated in crimes; none was left able to take a stand. Six princes were executed at Du. Prince Jianglü and his two brothers were imprisoned in the inner palace; judgment of their crimes was delayed. The Second Emperor sent a messenger to Jianglü: “The prince has failed in his duty to his ruler. His crime deserves death; the officials will carry out the law.” Jianglü said: “At court I have never dared fail to follow the directions of the ceremonial attendants. In the palace and temples I have never acted against the rites. When given orders and asked to answer, I have never dared use the wrong words. How have I failed in my duty? Let me hear my crime before I die.” The messenger said: “I did not take part in the decision. I only carry out the written order.” Jianglü looked up at heaven and cried out “Heaven!” three times. “I have committed no crime!” The three brothers wept, drew their swords, and killed themselves. The imperial clan trembled with fear. Ministers who protested were accused of slander; senior officials clung to their salaries and sought favor. The common people too were terrified.

In the fourth month the Second Emperor returned to Xianyang and said: “The former emperor thought the court at Xianyang too small, so he began Epang Palace with its halls and chambers. Before it was finished, he died, and the workers were sent to restore the earth at Mount Li. Now that the work at Mount Li is mostly finished, abandoning Epang Palace unfinished would suggest that the former emperor was wrong to begin it.” He resumed construction on Epang Palace. He kept the foreign peoples on all four sides in check, following the First Emperor's plan. He called up all fifty thousand able men to garrison Xianyang and had them train dogs, horses, and other animals in archery exercises. So many needed feeding that supplies appeared insufficient. He ordered commanderies and counties to transport beans, grain, fodder, and straw. The men had to bring their own food, and they were forbidden to eat any grain grown within three hundred li of Xianyang. The laws were enforced ever more harshly.

In the seventh month, Chen She and other garrison soldiers rebelled in the former Jing territory and called their state “Rising Chu.” Chen made himself King of Chu, settled at Chen, and sent generals to win over the land. Young men in the commanderies and counties east of the mountains had suffered under Qin officials. They killed their governors, military commanders, magistrates, and deputies, and rebelled in support of Chen She. They appointed one another lords and kings, joined forces, and headed west, calling their movement a campaign against Qin. Their numbers were beyond counting. An envoy returned from the east and reported the rebellion to the Second Emperor. He became angry and handed the envoy to the judicial officials. When the next envoy arrived, the emperor asked him about it. He replied: “They are just bands of robbers. The commandery governors and commanders are hunting them down, and now they have caught them all. There is no need for concern.” The emperor was pleased. Wu Chen made himself King of Zhao, Wei Jiu became King of Wei, and Tian Dan became King of Qi. The Lord of Pei rose up in Pei. Xiang Liang raised troops in Kuaiji Commandery.

In the winter of the second year, Zhou Zhang and others whom Chen She had sent led hundreds of thousands of soldiers west as far as Xi. The Second Emperor was alarmed and asked his ministers: “What shall we do?” Zhang Han, the director of the imperial treasury, said: “The rebels have reached us and are numerous and strong. There is not enough time to call up soldiers from nearby counties. There are many convicts at Mount Li. I ask you to pardon them and give them weapons to fight the rebels.” The Second Emperor proclaimed a general pardon and sent Zhang Han to command the men. Zhang defeated Zhou Zhang's army and put it to flight, then killed Zhang at Caoyang. The Second Emperor sent Chief Secretaries Sima Xin and Dong Yi to help Zhang Han fight the rebels. They killed Chen She at Chengfu, defeated Xiang Liang at Dingtao, and destroyed Wei Jiu's forces at Linji. Now that the famous rebel generals of Chu were dead, Zhang Han crossed the Yellow River north and attacked King Xie of Zhao and his men at Julu.

Zhao Gao advised the Second Emperor: “The former emperor ruled the world for a long time, so his ministers did not dare behave wrongly or offer dishonest advice. Your Majesty is young and has only just taken the throne. Why settle matters with the high officials in open court? If there is a mistake, you will show your weakness to your ministers. The Son of Heaven calls himself ‘We’ precisely because his voice should not be heard.” The Second Emperor therefore stayed in the private palace and made decisions with Gao. After that, senior officials rarely got to see him at court. Meanwhile rebels increased in number, and troops continued to be sent east from the Guanzhong region to fight them. Right Chancellor Quji, Left Chancellor Li Si, and General Feng Jie protested: “Rebel bands are rising all over the east. Qin has sent troops against them and killed very many, yet they are still not stopped. There are so many rebels because border garrisons, canal transport, hauling supplies, and forced labor are hard, and taxes are heavy. Please stop the work on Epang Palace for now and reduce the garrisons and transport duties at the four borders.” The Second Emperor said: “I have heard the words of Master Han: ‘Yao and Shun used untrimmed rafters and thatched roofs that were not clipped. They ate from earthen bowls and drank from earthen cups. Even a gatekeeper's provisions could not be more meager. Yu dug through Dragon Gate, opened a passage to Daxia, cut channels for the Yellow River's waters, and sent them to the sea. He held shovel and rammer himself, until his shins lost their hair. Even a slave's labor could hardly be worse.’ The point of ruling the whole world is to be able to do as one pleases and satisfy one's desires. The ruler must enforce the law strictly so that no one below dares to do wrong and he can control all the lands within the seas. The rulers of Yu and Xia held the lofty position of Son of Heaven but personally lived in hardship to please the common people. What use did they make of the law? I command ten thousand chariots but do not enjoy the reality of my position. I want to build a carriage escort of a thousand chariots, with the full equipment of a ruler of ten thousand, to match my title. Besides, the former emperor rose from among the other rulers and united the world. Once the land was settled, he drove out foreign peoples to secure the borders and built palaces to display his achievement. You can see that his work was properly planned. Yet in the two years since I took the throne, rebels have risen everywhere. You cannot stop them, and now you want to end what the former emperor began. In this way you fail to honor him and also fail to serve me loyally. Why should you hold office?” He handed Quji, Li Si, and Feng Jie over to the judicial officials to investigate other alleged crimes. Quji and Feng Jie said: “Generals and chancellors cannot accept such humiliation.” They killed themselves. Li Si was imprisoned and subjected to the five punishments.

In the third year, Zhang Han and his officers surrounded Julu with their soldiers. Xiang Yu, commander in chief of Chu, led Chu troops to its aid. In winter Zhao Gao became Chancellor and finished his case against Li Si, having him killed. In summer Zhang Han lost several battles. The Second Emperor sent someone to rebuke him. Afraid, Zhang sent Chief Secretary Sima Xin to ask for instructions. Zhao Gao would not see him and did not trust him. Xin fled in fear; Gao sent men to catch him, but they failed. Xin told Zhang Han: “Zhao Gao controls affairs at court. If you succeed, General, he will kill you, and if you fail, he will also kill you.” Xiang Yu attacked Qin's army fiercely and captured Wang Li. Zhang Han and the others surrendered their troops to the other states. On the day jihai in the eighth month, Zhao Gao wanted to rebel but feared the ministers would not obey him. First he tested them. He presented a deer to the Second Emperor and said: “Here is a horse.” The emperor laughed: “Is the Chancellor mistaken? You call a deer a horse.” He asked the attendants. Some said nothing; others called it a horse to please Zhao Gao. Some said it was a deer, and Gao secretly had all who said so brought up on charges. After that the ministers all feared him.

Zhao Gao had often said before that the rebels east of the passes could do nothing. But now Xiang Yu had captured Qin's general Wang Li and others at Julu and was advancing. Zhang Han's forces had been pushed back repeatedly, and he had written asking for more help. Kings had been installed in Yan, Zhao, Qi, Chu, Han, and Wei. Nearly all the lands east of the passes had rebelled against Qin's officials and joined the other states, and their forces were all marching west. The Lord of Pei had led tens of thousands of men to seize Wuguan Pass and had sent someone privately to contact Gao. Afraid the Second Emperor would be angry and have him executed, Gao claimed to be ill and stopped coming to court. The Second Emperor dreamed that a white tiger bit the left-hand horse of his carriage, and he killed it. Troubled by the dream, he asked a diviner what it meant. The diviner said: “The Jing River is causing trouble.” The Second Emperor went to Wangyi Palace to purify himself, intending to sacrifice four white horses by sinking them in the Jing River. He sent a messenger to blame Zhao Gao for the rebels. Gao was afraid. He secretly plotted with his son-in-law Yan Le, the magistrate of Xianyang, and his brother Zhao Cheng: “The emperor will not listen to advice. Now trouble is near and he wants to blame my family. I want to replace him and install Prince Ziying. Ziying is kind and frugal; the common people all respect what he says.” Gao had the Chamberlain of the Palace act as an inside accomplice. Pretending that a large gang of rebels had appeared, he ordered Yan Le to summon officials and gather soldiers. He had Le's mother seized and kept at his house as a hostage. He sent Le with more than a thousand officers and soldiers to the palace gate at Wangyi. They bound the commander of the guards and said: “Rebels have entered here! Why didn't you stop them?” The commander said: “Soldiers are posted carefully all around the palace. How could rebels dare to enter?” Le beheaded him, led the officers straight inside, and began shooting. The palace attendants and eunuchs were terrified. Some fled; others fought back, and those who fought were killed. Several dozen died. The Chamberlain of the Palace and Le entered together and shot at the curtains around the emperor's seat. The Second Emperor, furious, summoned his attendants, but they were all too frightened and confused to fight. One eunuch stood nearby, serving him, too afraid to leave. The emperor went inside and said to him: “Why did you not tell me earlier? Now it has come to this!” The eunuch said: “I did not dare speak, and that is why I am still alive. If I had spoken sooner, I would have been killed. How could I have lived until now?” Yan Le came forward and accused the Second Emperor: “You have been arrogant and reckless, killing people without justice. The whole world has risen against you. Decide now what you will do.” The Second Emperor said: “May I see the Chancellor?” Le said: “No.” The emperor said: “Let me rule one commandery as its king.” Le refused. He said: “Let me be a lord with ten thousand households.” Le refused again. He said: “Let me live as a commoner with my wife and children, like the other princes.” Yan Le said: “The Chancellor has ordered me to execute you on behalf of the whole world. Say as much as you like; I cannot report back to him with another answer.” He signaled his men to advance. The Second Emperor killed himself.

Yan Le returned to report to Zhao Gao. Gao summoned all the great ministers and princes and told them how the Second Emperor had been killed. He said: “Qin was originally a kingdom. The First Emperor ruled the whole world, so he called himself emperor. Now the six states have declared themselves independent again, and Qin's territory is shrinking. We cannot keep an empty title like ‘emperor.’ It is better to return to calling our ruler ‘king.’” He installed Ziying, the son of the Second Emperor's elder brother, as King of Qin. The Second Emperor was buried as a commoner in Yichun Park south of Du. Ziying was ordered to purify himself before appearing in the ancestral temple and receiving the royal seal. After five days of purification, Ziying plotted with his two sons: “Chancellor Gao killed the Second Emperor at Wangyi Palace. Afraid the ministers would execute him, he has pretended it is right to make me king. I have heard that Zhao Gao has made an agreement with Chu to destroy Qin's ruling family and become King of Guanzhong. Now he tells me to purify myself and appear at the temple, intending to kill me there. I will claim to be ill and refuse to go. The Chancellor will surely come himself, and when he does, we will kill him.” Gao sent several groups of men to summon Ziying, but Ziying would not go. Gao came in person, as expected, and said: “The ancestral temple is a matter of great importance. Why will Your Majesty not go?” Ziying stabbed Gao to death at the purification palace, had three generations of Gao's family killed, and displayed their bodies in Xianyang. Ziying had been King of Qin for forty-six days when the Chu general, the Lord of Pei, defeated the Qin army, entered Wuguan Pass, and reached Bashang. He sent someone to arrange Ziying's surrender. Ziying tied a silk cord around his neck and came in a plain carriage drawn by white horses. Carrying the Son of Heaven's seals and tallies, he surrendered beside the Zhidao Road. The Lord of Pei entered Xianyang, sealed up its palaces, government storehouses, and treasuries, and withdrew his army to Bashang. After a little more than a month, the armies of the other states arrived. Xiang Ji was commander of their alliance. He killed Ziying and the princes and relatives of Qin's ruling family. He put Xianyang to the sword and burned its palaces, captured its women and children, and seized its treasures and valuables for the rulers to divide among themselves. After destroying Qin, they divided its land in three, appointing the Kings of Yong, Sai, and Di. These kingdoms were called the Three Qins. Xiang Yu became Hegemon-King of Western Chu and took charge of appointing rulers and dividing the world among them. Qin had come to an end. Five years later, the Han dynasty brought the world under its rule.

The Grand Historian says: Qin's ancestor Bo Yi once rendered distinguished service in the time of Tang and Yu and was granted land and a family name. Between the Xia and Yin dynasties, his descendants became obscure and dispersed. As Zhou declined, Qin rose in the western borderlands. From Duke Mu onward, it gradually took territory from the other states, until the First Emperor completed the conquest. The First Emperor thought his achievements surpassed those of the Five Emperors, his territory exceeded that of the Three Kings, and comparison with them was beneath him. Jia Yi made an excellent argument on this subject. He said:

Qin annexed the other states and more than thirty commanderies east of the mountains. It repaired fords and passes, occupied strong defenses, and prepared weapons and armor to guard them. Yet Chen She raised his arm and shouted, leading a scattered band of a few hundred garrison soldiers. They had no bows or halberds, only hoes, farm tools, and plain wooden sticks. They lived off whatever homes they found and moved freely across the land. The Qin forces did not defend their strongholds, close their gates or bridges, thrust their long spears, or fire their powerful crossbows. Chu's army marched deep into Qin territory and fought at Hongmen without meeting even the difficulty of a fence. The lands east of the mountains then fell into turmoil. The other rulers rose, and prominent men appointed one another leaders. Qin sent Zhang Han east with an army, but Zhang used his troops to bargain with forces outside Qin and plot against his ruler. This shows how little the ministers could be trusted. When Ziying took power he still failed to see what was happening. Even if Ziying had been no more than an ordinary ruler, with only moderately capable aides, Qin could have kept all its own territory despite the disorder in the east. The sacrifices at its ancestral temples need not have ended.

Qin's land is protected by mountains and bordered by the Yellow River; it is a country enclosed by defenses on all four sides. From Duke Mu to the King of Qin, more than twenty rulers were consistently among the strongest of the other rulers. Were they all able men? No, their position made them strong. Once all the other states united their efforts to attack Qin. At that time they had wise advisers, skilled generals to lead their armies, and capable chancellors to coordinate their plans. Yet they were blocked by the difficult terrain and could not advance. Qin opened the passes to draw them in and fight, and their million soldiers fled in defeat. Was it because they lacked courage, strength, or intelligence? The terrain worked against them and their position was unfavorable. Qin could annex large cities with its small towns, station armies at fortified passes, raise strong walls without fighting, and close the gates and hold the narrow approaches with soldiers carrying halberds. The other rulers had risen from ordinary men and joined forces for profit. They did not have the standing of rightful kings from the beginning. Their alliances were not close and their followers were not loyal. They said they meant to destroy Qin, but they really sought to profit from it. When they saw how difficult Qin's defenses were to attack, they were bound to withdraw. By securing the land and letting its people rest while waiting for its enemies to weaken, and by bringing in the weak and supporting the exhausted, Qin could have given orders to the rulers of the great states and achieved whatever it wanted within the seas. But though Qin's ruler held the highest title of Son of Heaven and possessed the wealth of the world, he was captured. He had failed to respond properly to defeat.

The King of Qin trusted only himself and would not ask for advice. He made mistakes without changing his ways. The Second Emperor inherited his methods and did not correct them; his cruelty made the disaster worse. Ziying stood alone, without close allies; weak and in danger, he had no support. All three rulers were confused and never understood their errors. Is it surprising that Qin fell? There were people then who thought deeply and understood change, but they dared not speak honestly to correct the ruler's mistakes. Qin custom forbade discussion of many sensitive subjects. Before a loyal adviser could finish speaking, he might be executed. So men across the land strained their ears to listen, stood motionless in fear, and kept silent. The three rulers lost their way. Loyal ministers dared not advise them, able men dared not offer plans, and when the world fell into disorder, the ruler was not told of wrongdoing. How sad! Earlier kings knew that shutting a ruler off from the truth would harm a state. They appointed high ministers, grandees, and officials to improve the law and set punishments, and the world was governed. When they were strong, they stopped violence and punished rebellion, and the world submitted. When they were weaker, the Five Hegemons went to war and other rulers followed them. When their territory diminished, they defended their lands and sought allies abroad, and their state survived. At its height Qin used complicated laws and severe punishments, and the world trembled. As it declined, the common people grew resentful and all the lands within the seas rebelled. Zhou maintained the right order in five ranks and survived for over a thousand years. Qin went wrong at every level, and that is why it did not last. The ways that lead to safety and those that lead to danger are very different. A country saying goes: “Remember earlier events and use them to learn what to do next.” A ruler who governs well studies ancient times, tests their lessons against the present, weighs human affairs, observes why states rise and fall, and judges what suits his power and circumstances. He knows when to act and when to hold back, and changes course at the right time. Thus his state remains secure for a long time.

Duke Xiao of Qin held the strong positions of the Xiao Mountains and Hangu Pass and controlled Yongzhou. He and his ministers guarded it closely and watched the Zhou royal house. They intended to sweep up all the land, bring the world under their control, take in all the territory within the seas, and swallow the eight farthest regions. At the time Lord Shang assisted him. At home he established laws and standards, promoted farming and weaving, and prepared defenses and armies. Abroad he used separate alliances to turn the other rulers against one another. Qin thus easily took the lands beyond the West River.

After Duke Xiao died, King Hui and King Wu inherited his achievements and followed the policies he left. In the south they annexed Hanzhong, in the west they seized Ba and Shu, and in the east they cut off fertile lands and took strategically important commanderies. The other rulers were afraid. They met and formed a league to plan how to weaken Qin. They did not spare precious vessels, valuable treasures, or rich lands in their efforts to attract able men from everywhere. They made a united alliance and joined together. At that time Qi had Lord Mengchang, Zhao had Lord Pingyuan, Chu had Lord Chunshen, and Wei had Lord Xinling. All four were intelligent and trustworthy, generous and kind to people, and respectful of talented officials. They formed an alliance against Qin and broke up Qin's separate alliances, joining the forces of Han, Wei, Yan, Chu, Qi, Zhao, Song, Wei, and Zhongshan. Their advisers included Ning Yue, Xu Shang, Su Qin, and Du He. Qi Ming, Zhou Zui, Chen Zhen, Zhao Hua, Lou Huan, Zhai Jing, Su Li, and Yue Yi coordinated their plans. Wu Qi, Sun Bin, Dai Tuo, Er Liang, Wang Liao, Tian Ji, Lian Po, and Zhao She commanded their armies. More than once, with ten times Qin's territory and a million soldiers, they attacked its passes. The Qin forces opened the passes to invite them in, but the armies of the nine states hesitated, fell back, and dared not advance. Qin had not lost even an arrow or arrowhead, yet the other rulers were exhausted. Their alliance then broke up and their agreements ended. They competed to cede land to Qin. Qin used its remaining strength to exploit their weakness, pursued the fleeing armies, and left a million corpses and enough blood to float their shields. Seizing this advantage, it divided the world, carving up its mountains and rivers. Strong states asked to submit; weak states came to court. Under King Xiaowen and King Zhuangxiang, whose reigns were short, the state faced no trouble.

Then the King of Qin inherited the achievements of six generations. He took up their long policy of controlling the world. He swallowed the two Zhou states, destroyed the other rulers, took the highest title, and controlled all six directions. He used whip and club to drive the world, and his power shook all lands within the seas. In the south he took the lands of the Hundred Yue and made them Guilin and Xiang commanderies. The Yue rulers bowed their heads and tied cords around their necks, surrendering their lives to Qin's officials. He sent Meng Tian north to build the Great Wall and defend the border. Meng pushed the Xiongnu back over seven hundred li; their riders no longer dared come south to graze horses, and their soldiers dared not draw their bows to take revenge. The king rejected the ways of earlier rulers and burned the writings of the various schools to keep the common people ignorant. He demolished famous cities, killed prominent men, gathered weapons from all over the land at Xianyang, melted down their blades and cast their stands, and made twelve bronze figures, in order to weaken the people. He cut into Mount Hua to form a wall and used the Yellow River as a moat. From a wall countless yards high, above a bottomless ravine, he held a secure position. Skilled generals and powerful crossbowmen guarded the strategic points, and trusted officers with crack troops stood with sharpened weapons to challenge anyone approaching. The world was pacified. The King of Qin thought that Guanzhong's strength and its thousand-li-long defenses as solid as metal would allow his descendants to rule as emperors for ten thousand generations.

After the King of Qin died, the force of his reputation still reached distant peoples. Chen She came from a poor family whose window was a clay jar and whose door pivot was a rope. He was a farm worker, a servant, and a man sent into exile. His ability was below average. He had neither the wisdom of Confucius and Mo Di nor the wealth of Tao Zhu and Yi Dun. He took his place among the common soldiers and rose from a group of ten or a hundred men. He led exhausted, scattered troops, a few hundred people in all, and turned against Qin. They cut branches into weapons and raised poles for banners. People everywhere gathered like clouds and answered the call, carrying food and following him as closely as shadows. The leading men east of the mountains rose together and destroyed the Qin ruling family.

The Qin empire had not grown small or weak. Yongzhou and the strong defenses of the Xiao Mountains and Hangu Pass remained as before. Chen She's rank was not higher than that of the rulers of Qi, Chu, Yan, Zhao, Han, Wei, Song, Wei, and Zhongshan. His hoes, farm tools, and thornwood spears were not sharper than hooked halberds and long spears. His band of convicts sent to the border could not match the armies of the nine states. His plans and foresight, and his knowledge of marching and warfare, were no match for the advisers of former times. Yet their successes and failures turned out differently; they achieved opposite results. If we compare the states east of the mountains with Chen She in size and power, they cannot even be discussed as equals. Qin, however, started with its small territory and the power of a state with a thousand chariots. For over a hundred years it brought the eight regions under its control and made rulers of equal rank come to its court. Then it made the whole world its home and the Xiao Mountains and Hangu Pass its palace. But when one man began a rebellion, its seven ancestral temples fell, its ruler died at another's hands, and it became the laughingstock of the world. Why? Because it did not practice kindness and justice, and because the methods needed to conquer are different from those needed to hold power.

Qin united the lands within the seas, annexed the other states, faced south as emperor, and ruled over the four seas. People everywhere eagerly looked toward it. Why? For a long time in the recent past there had been no true king. The Zhou royal house was weak, and the Five Hegemons had died. No one's orders carried through the whole land. So the other rulers governed by force: the strong invaded the weak, and the many bullied the few. War never stopped, and officials and common people alike were worn out. Now Qin faced south and ruled the world, so there was a Son of Heaven over them. The ordinary people hoped to live safely. All looked toward the ruler with open hearts. This was the moment to preserve his power and secure his achievements; here lay the basis of safety or danger.

The King of Qin was greedy and mean. He followed his own aggressive ideas, distrusted ministers who had served him well, and kept officials and common people at a distance. He rejected the ways of good kings and established power for himself alone. He banned books and writings and imposed cruel laws and punishments. He put deception and force ahead of kindness and justice, beginning his rule over the world with violence. Deception and force may help a ruler annex lands; to keep them stable, he needs to use his authority in a way that wins consent. In other words, taking power and keeping it require different methods. Qin left the age of warring states behind and ruled the world, but it did not change its methods or government. It used the same methods to hold power as it had used to take it. Alone and isolated, it ruled the world, so its destruction could be expected at once. If the King of Qin had studied past events, followed the examples of the Yin and Zhou dynasties, and governed accordingly, later rulers could have been reckless and arrogant without putting the state in danger. That is why the Three Kings established their rule over the world, kept an honored and admired reputation, and left achievements that lasted.

When the Second Emperor took the throne, everyone watched eagerly to see how he would govern. Someone who is cold welcomes even a short rough coat; someone who is hungry enjoys even grain husks. The suffering people were an opportunity for the new ruler. It would have been easy to win their loyalty through kindness. Suppose the Second Emperor had behaved even as well as an ordinary ruler and employed loyal and capable ministers. Ruler and ministers could have worked together to address the world's troubles. While wearing mourning white he could have corrected the former emperor's mistakes, divided land and people into fiefs for the descendants of deserving ministers, established states and their rulers to honor the people of the world, emptied the prisons and ended executions, and abolished the shameful practice of arresting and punishing convicts' wives and children. He could have allowed everyone to return home, opened the government granaries, and distributed money and goods to aid orphans, the poor, and those in distress. He could have lowered taxes, reduced labor duties to meet the people's urgent needs, and simplified laws and punishments for the future. He could have allowed everyone a fresh start, a change in behavior, and a chance to live responsibly. By meeting the people's hopes and sharing his power and kindness with all, he would have won their support. Everyone throughout the four seas would have been happy and content where they lived and feared only a change in their circumstances. Even devious people would not have wanted to leave their ruler. Then disloyal ministers could not have disguised their schemes as clever plans, and violent rebellion would have stopped. The Second Emperor did none of this. He made matters worse with lawless conduct. He destroyed the ancestral temples and harmed the people, and began work on Epang Palace again. Punishments multiplied, executions became severe, and officials governed cruelly. Rewards and punishments were unfair, and taxes had no limit. Troubles filled the world, beyond the officials' ability to manage. The common people were poor and desperate, and the ruler offered them no care or relief. Dishonesty and fraud spread; rulers and subjects deceived one another. Many were found guilty, and the executed could be seen all along the roads. The whole world suffered. From the ruler and his senior ministers down to ordinary people, everyone feared for his own safety, lived in hardship, and felt insecure in his place. So they were easily stirred to action. Chen She was neither as wise as Tang and Wu nor a lord or marquis. Yet when he raised his arm in the Great Marsh, the world responded, because the people were in danger. Earlier kings saw how circumstances change from beginning to end and understood how states survive or fall. Their way of governing people was above all to keep them secure. Then even when treacherous ministers appear, they find no one to support them. That is what people mean when they say, “You can lead secure people to act justly, but it is easy to lead people in danger into wrongdoing.” The Second Emperor had the honor of being Son of Heaven and the wealth of the whole world, yet could not save himself from being killed. He failed to put right what was going wrong. That was the Second Emperor's mistake.

Duke Xiang took the throne and ruled for twelve years. He first established the western altar. He was buried at Xichui. His son was Duke Wen.

Duke Wen took the throne and lived in Xichui Palace. He died after fifty years and was buried at Xichui. His son was Duke Jing.

Duke Jing died without ruling. His son was Duke Xian.

Duke Xian ruled for twelve years and lived at the New Western City. He died and was buried at Ya. His sons were Duke Wu, Duke De, and Chuzi.

Chuzi ruled for six years and lived at Xiling. Three senior clan chiefs, Fuji, Weilei, and Canfu, led assassins to kill Chuzi at Biyan. He was buried at Ya. Duke Wu took the throne.

Duke Wu ruled for twenty years. He lived in the Feng Palace at Pingyang and was buried southeast of Xuanyangju. The three clan chiefs paid for their crime. Duke De took the throne.

Duke De ruled for two years. He lived at Dazheng Palace in Yong. His sons were Duke Xuan, Duke Cheng, and Duke Mu. He was buried at Yang. He first held the fu sacrifice to ward off harmful spirits.

Duke Xuan ruled for twelve years. He lived at Yang Palace and was buried at Yang. He first recorded the intercalary month.

Duke Cheng ruled for four years and lived in the palace at Yong. He was buried at Yang. Qi attacked the Mountain Rong and Guzhu.

Duke Mu ruled for thirty-nine years. The Son of Heaven recognized him as hegemon. He was buried at Yong. Duke Mu studied with the man named Zhu. His son was Duke Kang.

Duke Kang ruled for twelve years. He lived in the Upper Resting Palace at Yong and was buried at Qushe. His son was Duke Gong.

Duke Gong ruled for five years and lived in the Upper Resting Palace at Yong. He was buried south of Duke Kang. His son was Duke Huan.

Duke Huan ruled for twenty-seven years. He lived in the Great Resting Palace at Yong and was buried north of Yili Hill. His son was Duke Jing.

Duke Jing ruled for forty years. He lived in the Upper Resting Palace at Yong and was buried south of Qiuli. His son was Duke Bi.

Duke Bi ruled for thirty-six years. He was buried north of Cheli. His son was Duke Yi.

Duke Yi did not rule. He died and was buried at Zuogong. His son was Duke Hui.

Duke Hui ruled for ten years. He was buried at Cheli, near Kang and Jing. His son was Duke Dao.

Duke Dao ruled for fifteen years. He was buried west of Duke Xi and built the walls of Yong. His son was Duke Ligong.

Duke Ligong ruled for thirty-four years. He was buried at Ruli. His sons were Duke Zao and Duke Huai. In his tenth year a comet appeared.

Duke Zao ruled for fourteen years. He lived at Shouqin and was buried south of Duke Dao. In his first year a comet appeared.

Duke Huai came from Jin. He ruled for four years and was buried at Liyushi. His son was Duke Ling. His ministers surrounded him, and he killed himself.

Duke Suling was the son of Zhaozi. He lived at Jingyang, ruled for ten years, and was buried west of Duke Dao. His son was Duke Jian.

Duke Jian came from Jin. He ruled for fifteen years and was buried west of Duke Xi. His son was Duke Hui. In his seventh year, common people began wearing swords.

Duke Hui ruled for thirteen years. He was buried at Lingyu. His son was Duke Chu.

Duke Chu ruled for two years. He killed himself and was buried at Yong.

Duke Xian ruled for twenty-three years. He was buried at Xiaoyu. His son was Duke Xiao.

Duke Xiao ruled for twenty-four years. He was buried at Diyu. His son was King Huiwen. In his thirteenth year, Xianyang first became the capital.

King Huiwen ruled for twenty-seven years. He was buried at Gongling. His son was King Daowu.

King Daowu ruled for four years and was buried at Yongling.

King Zhaoxiang ruled for fifty-six years. He was buried at Zhiyang. His son was King Xiaowen.

King Xiaowen ruled for one year. He was buried at Shouling. His son was King Zhuangxiang.

King Zhuangxiang ruled for three years. He was buried at Zhiyang. His son was the First Emperor. Lü Buwei was his Chancellor.

In Duke Xian's seventh year on the throne, markets were first established. In his tenth year, households were registered in groups of five.

Duke Xiao took the throne at sixteen years of age. At that time, peach and plum trees flowered in winter.

King Huiwen took the throne at nineteen years of age. In his second year, he first issued coins. A newborn baby said: “Qin will be king.”

King Daowu took the throne at nineteen years of age. In his third year, the Wei River ran red for three days.

King Zhaoxiang took the throne at nineteen years of age. In his fourth year, the boundaries between fields were first opened up.

King Xiaowen took the throne at fifty-three years of age.

King Zhuangxiang took the throne at thirty-two years of age. In his second year he took the Taiyuan region. In the first year of his reign he issued a general pardon, honored the earlier kings' deserving ministers, treated his relatives generously, and gave benefits to the people. Eastern Zhou plotted with the other rulers against Qin. Qin sent Chancellor Lü Buwei to destroy it and absorbed all its territory. Qin did not end its ancestral sacrifices: it gave its ruler the land of Yangren, so he could continue to offer them.

The First Emperor ruled for thirty-seven years and was buried at Liyi. His son was the Second Emperor. The First Emperor took the throne at thirteen years of age.

The Second Emperor ruled for three years and was buried at Yichun. Zhao Gao was Chancellor and Lord Anwu. The Second Emperor took the throne at twelve years of age.

The rulers listed above, from Duke Xiang of Qin to the Second Emperor, span six hundred and ten years.

On the fifteenth day of the tenth month, the day yichou, in the seventeenth year of Emperor Xiaoming, Ban Gu said:

The Zhou dynasty's allotted time had already passed, but a kind son does not replace his mother. Qin claimed its rightful place, yet Zheng, born to the Lü family, was cruel and violent. He became a ruler at thirteen and united the world. He freely satisfied his desires and provided for his family. In thirty-seven years there was nowhere his armies did not reach. He established institutions, laws, and orders that later rulers used. Perhaps he had the power of a sage: the River Spirit handed down a chart, and the signs of the Wolf and Fox, and of Shen and Fa, guided his rise and cleared his path to rule. He rejected the title offered him and called himself the First Emperor.

After the First Emperor died, Huhai showed utter foolishness. Before the work at Mount Li was done, he resumed construction of Epang Palace to carry out the earlier plan. He said: “The point of ruling the whole world is to do whatever one likes and satisfy one's every desire, yet senior ministers even want to stop the work my father began.” He executed Li Si and Quji and put Zhao Gao in power. How painful to hear such words! He had a human head but made the sounds of a beast. He neither commanded respect nor struck down wrongdoers. He had neither steady character nor true humility; his ruin was unavoidable. He could not delay it. His cruelty hastened the end. Though he ruled a land naturally easy to defend, he could not preserve it.

Ziying was next in line to inherit. He wore a jade crown and fine ceremonial sash, rode in a carriage with a yellow canopy, was attended by a hundred officials, and paid respects at the seven ancestral temples. When lesser men take a position beyond their abilities, they generally lose their heads and fail in their duties, seeking only to get through each day safely. But Ziying could think ahead and consider past events. He and his sons made a plan, taking action within the rooms of their own house, and succeeded in killing the treacherous minister, punishing a rebel on behalf of the ruler. After Gao died, before guests and relatives had finished greeting one another, before anyone had swallowed a mouthful of food or moistened his lips with wine, Chu's army had already put Guanzhong to the sword. The true man appeared in triumph at Bashang. Ziying, riding in a plain carriage with a cord around his neck, handed over his tallies and seals and submitted to the man who would become emperor. When the ruler of Zheng offered a grass-wrapped banner and a sacrificial knife with bells, King Zhuang withdrew his troops. Once a river's banks have broken, it cannot be held back again; once a fish has rotted, it cannot be made whole again. Jia Yi and Sima Qian said: “If Ziying had had even the ability of an ordinary ruler and only moderately capable aides, Qin could have held its territory despite the disorder east of the mountains, and the sacrifices at its ancestral temples need not have ended.” But Qin had been weakening for so long, and the world was falling apart. Even a man as capable as the Duke of Zhou could not have shown his skill then. It is wrong to blame a ruler who stood alone for a single day! Tradition says the First Emperor began Qin's crimes and Huhai took them to their limit. That is a sound judgment. To blame the young Ziying as well and say Qin's land could have been saved shows no understanding of how times change. When Ji of Ji handed over Xi, the Spring and Autumn Annals did not record his name in blame. Whenever I read Qin's chronicle and reach Ziying's execution of Zhao Gao by tearing him apart with carts, I admire his resolve and sympathize with his intentions. Ziying did everything that duty required of him, whether it meant life or death.