{"schema_version":1,"access":"public","rights":"Public-domain or compatibly licensed source editions; provenance is retained per record.","work":{"slug":"art-of-war","title":"The Art of War","author":"Sunzi","tradition":"chinese","language":"lzh","genre":"strategy","period":"c. 5th c. BCE","source_url":"https://zh.wikisource.org/w/index.php?oldid=7906064&action=raw","original":{"text":"### Chapter 1 — Initial Assessments\n\n孫子曰：兵者，國之大事，死生之地，存亡之道，不可不察也。故經之以五事，校之以七計，而索其情：一曰道，二曰天，三曰地，四曰將，五曰法。\n\n道者，令民與上同意，可與之死，可與之生，而不畏危也。天者，陰陽、寒暑、時制也。地者，高下、遠近、險易、廣狹、死生也。將者，智、信、仁、勇、嚴也。法者，曲制、官道、主用也。凡此五者，將莫不聞，知之者勝，不知者不勝。故校之以七計而索其情，曰：主孰有道？將孰有能？天地孰得？法令孰行？兵眾孰強？士卒孰練？賞罰孰明？吾以此知勝負矣。\n\n將聽吾計，用之必勝，留之；將不聽吾計，用之必敗，去之。計利以聽，乃為之勢，以佐其外。勢者，因利而制權也。兵者，詭道也。故能而示之不能，用而示之不用，近而示之遠，遠而示之近。利而誘之，亂而取之，實而備之，強而避之，怒而撓之，卑而驕之，佚而勞之，親而離之。攻其無備，出其不意。此兵家之勝，不可先傳也。\n\n夫未戰而廟算勝者，得算多也；未戰而廟算不勝者，得算少也。多算勝，少算不勝，而況於無算乎？吾以此觀之，勝負見矣。\n\n### Chapter 2 — Waging War\n\n孫子曰：凡用兵之法，馳車千駟，革車千乘，帶甲十萬，千里饋糧，則內外之費，賓客之用，膠漆之材，車甲之奉，日費千金，然後十萬之師舉矣。其用戰也，貴勝，久則鈍兵挫銳，攻城則力屈，久暴師則國用不足。夫鈍兵挫銳，屈力殫貨，則諸侯乘其弊而起，雖有智者，不能善其後矣。故兵聞拙速，未睹巧之久也。夫兵久而國利者，未之有也。故不盡知用兵之害者，則不能盡知用兵之利也。\n\n善用兵者，役不再籍，糧不三載；取用於國，因糧於敵，故軍食可足也。\n\n國之貧於師者遠輸，遠輸則百姓貧；近師者貴賣，貴賣則百姓財竭，財竭則急於丘役。力屈財殫，中原內虛於家。百姓之費，十去其七；公家之費，破車罷馬，甲胄矢弩，戟楯蔽櫓，丘牛大車，十去其六。\n\n故智將務食於敵，食敵一鍾，當吾二十鍾；萁稈一石，當吾二十石。\n\n故殺敵者，怒也；取敵之利者，貨也。故車戰，得車十乘以上，賞其先得者，而更其旌旗。車雜而乘之，卒善而養之，是謂勝敵而益強。\n\n故兵貴勝，不貴久。故知兵之將，民之司命，國家安危之主也。\n\n### Chapter 3 — Strategic Attack\n\n孫子曰：凡用兵之法，全國為上，破國次之；全軍為上，破軍次之；全旅為上，破旅次之；全卒為上，破卒次之；全伍為上，破伍次之。是故百戰百勝，非善之善者也；不戰而屈人之兵，善之善者也。\n\n故上兵伐謀，其次伐交，其次伐兵，其下攻城。攻城之法，為不得已。修櫓轒轀，具器械，三月而後成；距闉，又三月而後已。將不勝其忿，而蟻附之，殺士三分之一，而城不拔者，此攻之災也。\n\n故善用兵者，屈人之兵而非戰也，拔人之城而非攻也，毀人之國而非久也，必以全爭於天下，故兵不頓而利可全，此謀攻之法也。\n\n故用兵之法，十則圍之，五則攻之，倍則分之，敵則能戰之，少則能守之，不若則能避之。故小敵之堅，大敵之擒也。\n\n夫將者，國之輔也。輔周則國必強，輔隙則國必弱。\n\n故君之所以患於軍者三：不知軍之不可以進而謂之進，不知軍之不可以退而謂之退，是為縻軍；不知三軍之事，而同三軍之政，則軍士惑矣；不知三軍之權，而同三軍之任，則軍士疑矣。三軍既惑且疑，則諸侯之難至矣，是謂亂軍引勝。\n\n故知勝有五：知可以戰與不可以戰者勝，識衆寡之用者勝，上下同欲者勝，以虞待不虞者勝，將能而君不御者勝。此五者，知勝之道也。\n\n故曰：知彼知己，百戰不殆；不知彼而知己，一勝一負；不知彼不知己，每戰必殆。\n\n### Chapter 4 — Military Form\n\n孫子曰：昔之善戰者，先為不可勝，以待敵之可勝。不可勝在己，可勝在敵。故善戰者，能為不可勝，不能使敵之必可勝。故曰：勝可知，而不可為。\n\n不可勝者，守也；可勝者，攻也。守則不足，攻則有餘。善守者，藏於九地之下；善攻者，動於九天之上，故能自保而全勝也。\n\n見勝不過衆人之所知，非善之善者也；戰勝而天下曰善，非善之善者也。故舉秋毫不為多力，見日月不為明目，聞雷霆不為聰耳。\n\n古之所謂善戰者，勝於易勝者也。故善戰者之勝也，無智名，無勇功。故其戰勝不忒。不忒者，其所措必勝，勝已敗者也。故善戰者，立於不敗之地，而不失敵之敗也。是故勝兵先勝而後求戰，敗兵先戰而後求勝。善用兵者，修道而保法，故能為勝敗之政。\n\n兵法：一曰度，二曰量，三曰數，四曰稱，五曰勝。地生度，度生量，量生數，數生稱，稱生勝。故勝兵若以鎰稱銖，敗兵若以銖稱鎰。勝者之戰民也，若決積水於千仞之溪者，形也。\n\n### Chapter 5 — Strategic Power\n\n孫子曰：凡治衆如治寡，分數是也；鬥衆如鬥寡，形名是也；三軍之衆，可使必受敵而無敗者，奇正是也；兵之所加，如以碫投卵者，虛實是也。\n\n凡戰者，以正合，以奇勝。故善出奇者，無窮如天地，不竭如江海。終而復始，日月是也。死而復生，四時是也。聲不過五，五聲之變，不可勝聽也；色不過五，五色之變，不可勝觀也；味不過五，五味之變，不可勝嘗也；戰勢不過奇正，奇正之變，不可勝窮也。奇正相生，如循環之無端，孰能窮之哉？\n\n激水之疾，至於漂石者，勢也；鷙鳥之疾，至於毀折者，節也。故善戰者，其勢險，其節短。勢如彍弩，節如發機。\n\n紛紛紜紜，鬥亂而不可亂也；渾渾沌沌，形圓而不可敗也。亂生於治，怯生於勇，弱生於強。治亂，數也；勇怯，勢也；強弱，形也。\n\n故善動敵者，形之，敵必從之；予之，敵必取之。以利動之，以卒待之。\n\n故善戰者，求之於勢，不責於人，故能擇人而任勢。任勢者，其戰人也，如轉木石。木石之性，安則靜，危則動，方則止，圓則行。故善戰人之勢，如轉圓石於千仞之山者，勢也。\n\n### Chapter 6 — Fullness and Emptiness\n\n孫子曰：凡先處戰地而待敵者佚，後處戰地而趨戰者勞。故善戰者，致人而不致於人。\n\n能使敵自至者，利之也；能使敵不得至者，害之也。故敵佚能勞之，飽能饑之，安能動之。出其所不趨，趨其所不意。\n\n行千里而不勞者，行於無人之地也。攻而必取者，攻其所不守也；守而必固者，守其所不攻也。故善攻者，敵不知其所守；善守者，敵不知其所攻。微乎微乎！至于無形；神乎神乎！至于無聲，故能為敵之司命。\n\n進而不可禦者，沖其虛也；退而不可追者，速而不可及也。故我欲戰，敵雖高壘深溝，不得不與我戰者，攻其所必救也；我不欲戰，雖畫地而守之，敵不得與我戰者，乖其所之也。\n\n故形人而我無形，則我專而敵分。我專為一，敵分為十，是以十攻其一也，則我衆而敵寡。能以衆擊寡者，則吾之所與戰者，約矣。吾所與戰之地不可知，不可知，則敵所備者多，敵所備者多，則吾之所與戰者寡矣。故備前則後寡，備後則前寡，備左則右寡，備右則左寡，無所不備，則無所不寡。寡者，備人者也；衆者，使人備己者也。\n\n故知戰之地，知戰之日，則可千里而會戰；不知戰之地，不知戰之日，則左不能救右，右不能救左，前不能救後，後不能救前，而況遠者數十里，近者數里乎！以吾度之，越人之兵雖多，亦奚益於勝敗哉！故曰：勝可擅也。敵雖衆，可使無鬥。\n\n故策之而知得失之計，作之而知動靜之理，形之而知死生之地，角之而知有餘不足之處。故形兵之極，至於無形。無形，則深間不能窺，智者不能謀。因形而措勝於衆，衆不能知。人皆知我所以勝之形，而莫知吾所以制勝之形。故其戰勝不復，而應形於無窮。\n\n夫兵形象水，水之行，避高而趨下；兵之勝，避實而擊虛。水因地而制行，兵因敵而制勝。故兵無成勢，無恒形，能因敵變化而取勝者，謂之神。故五行無常勝，四時無常位，日有短長，月有死生。\n\n### Chapter 7 — Armed Contest\n\n孫子曰：凡用兵之法，將受命於君，合軍聚衆，交和而舍，莫難於軍爭。軍爭之難者，以迂為直，以患為利。故迂其途，而誘之以利，後人發，先人至，此知迂直之計者也。\n\n故軍爭為利，軍爭為危。舉軍而爭利，則不及；委軍而爭利，則輜重捐。是故卷甲而趨，日夜不處，倍道兼行，百里而爭利，則擒三軍將，勁者先，疲者後，其法十一而至；五十里而爭利，則蹶上軍將，其法半至；三十里而爭利，則三分之二至。是故軍無輜重則亡，無糧食則亡，無委積則亡。故不知諸侯之謀者，不能豫交；不知山林、險阻、沮澤之形者，不能行軍；不用鄉導者，不能得地利。\n\n故兵以詐立，以利動，以分合為變者也。故其疾如風，其徐如林，侵掠如火，不動如山，難知如陰，動如雷震。掠鄉分衆，廓地分利，懸權而動。先知迂直之計者勝，此軍爭之法也。\n\n《軍政》曰：「言不相聞，故為金鼓；視不相見，故為旌旗。」夫金鼓旌旗者，所以一民之耳目也。民既專一，則勇者不得獨進，怯者不得獨退，此用衆之法也。故夜戰多金鼓，晝戰多旌旗，所以變人之耳目也。\n\n三軍可奪氣，將軍可奪心。是故朝氣銳，晝氣惰，暮氣歸。故善用兵者，避其銳氣，擊其惰歸，此治氣者也；以治待亂，以靜待嘩，此治心者也；以近待遠，以佚待勞，以飽待饑，此治力者也；無邀正正之旗，無擊堂堂之陣，此治變者也。\n\n故用兵之法，高陵勿向，背丘勿逆，佯北勿從，銳卒勿攻，餌兵勿食，歸師勿遏，圍師必闕，窮寇勿迫，此用兵之法也。\n\n### Chapter 8 — Nine Variations\n\n孫子曰：凡用兵之法，將受命於君，合軍聚眾。圮地無舍，衢地合交，絕地無留，圍地則謀，死地則戰。途有所不由，軍有所不擊，城有所不攻，地有所不爭，君命有所不受。故將通於九變之利者，知用兵矣；將不通於九變之利，雖知地形，不能得地之利矣；治兵不知九變之術，雖知地利，不能得人之用矣。\n\n是故智者之慮，必雜於利害，雜於利而務可信也，雜於害而患可解也。是故屈諸侯者以害，役諸侯者以業，趨諸侯者以利。\n\n故用兵之法，無恃其不來，恃吾有以待之；無恃其不攻，恃吾有所不可攻也。\n\n故將有五危︰必死，可殺也﹔必生，可虜也﹔忿速，可侮也﹔廉潔，可辱也﹔愛民，可煩也。凡此五者，將之過也，用兵之災也。覆軍殺將，必以五危，不可不察也。\n\n### Chapter 9 — Marching the Army\n\n孫子曰：凡處軍相敵，絕山依谷，視生處高，戰隆無登，此處山之軍也。絕水必遠水，客絕水而來，勿迎之于水內，令半濟而擊之，利；欲戰者，無附于水而迎客，視生處高，無迎水流，此處水上之軍也。絕斥澤，惟亟去無留，若交軍於斥澤之中，必依水草，而背衆樹，此處斥澤之軍也。平陸處易，而右背高，前死後生，此處平陸之軍也。凡此四軍之利，黃帝之所以勝四帝也。\n\n凡軍好高而惡下，貴陽而賤陰，養生而處實，軍無百疾，是謂必勝。丘陵堤防，必處其陽，而右背之，此兵之利，地之助也。上雨，水沫至，欲涉者，待其定也。\n\n凡地有絕澗，遇天井、天牢、天羅、天陷、天隙，必亟去之，勿近也。吾遠之，敵近之；吾迎之，敵背之。軍旁有險阻、潢井、葭葦、林木、蘙薈者，必謹覆索之，此伏奸之所處也。\n\n敵近而靜者，恃其險也；遠而挑戰者，欲人之進也；其所居易者，利也；衆樹動者，來也；衆草多障者，疑也；鳥起者，伏也；獸駭者，覆也；塵高而銳者，車來也；卑而廣者，徒來也；散而條達者，樵采也；少而往來者，營軍也；辭卑而益備者，進也；辭強而進驅者，退也；輕車先出，居其側者，陣也；無約而請和者，謀也；奔走而陳兵者，期也；半進半退者，誘也；杖而立者，饑也；汲而先飲者，渴也；見利而不進者，勞也；鳥集者，虛也；夜呼者，恐也；軍擾者，將不重也；旌旗動者，亂也；吏怒者，倦也；粟馬肉食，軍無懸缻，而不返其舍者，窮寇也；諄諄翕翕，徐與人言者，失衆也；數賞者，窘也；數罰者，困也；先暴而後畏其衆者，不精之至也；來委謝者，欲休息也。兵怒而相迎，久而不合，又不相去，必謹察之。\n\n故兵非貴益多也，惟無武進，足以併力、料敵、取人而已。夫惟無慮而易敵者，必擒於人。\n\n卒未親附而罰之，則不服，不服則難用也。卒已親附而罰不行，則不可用也。故令之以文，齊之以武，是謂必取。令素行以教其民，則民服；令素不行以教其民，則民不服。令素行者，與衆相得也。\n\n### Chapter 10 — Terrain\n\n孫子曰：凡地形有通者、有掛者、有支者、有隘者、有險者、有遠者。我可以往，彼可以來，曰通。通形者，先居高陽，利糧道，以戰則利。可以往，難以返，曰掛。掛形者，敵無備，出而勝之；敵若有備，出而不勝，難以返，不利。我出而不利，彼出而不利，曰支。支形者，敵雖利我，我無出也，引而去之，令敵半出而擊之，利。隘形者，我先居之，必盈之以待敵。若敵先居之，盈而勿從，不盈而從之。險形者，我先居之，必居高陽以待敵；若敵先居之，引而去之，勿從也。遠形者，勢均，難以挑戰，戰而不利。凡此六者，地之道也，將之至任，不可不察也。\n\n故兵有走者、有弛者、有陷者、有崩者、有亂者、有北者。凡此六者，非天之災，將之過也。夫勢均，以一擊十，曰走；卒强吏弱，曰弛；吏强卒弱，曰陷；大吏怒而不服，遇敵懟而自戰，將不知其能，曰崩；將弱不嚴，教道不明，吏卒無常，陳兵縱橫，曰亂；將不能料敵，以少合衆，以弱擊強，兵無選鋒，曰北。凡此六者，敗之道也，將之至任，不可不察也。\n\n夫地形者，兵之助也。料敵制勝，計險厄遠近，上將之道也。知此而用戰者必勝，不知此而用戰者必敗。故戰道必勝，主曰無戰，必戰可也；戰道不勝，主曰必戰，無戰可也。是故進不求名，退不避罪，唯民是保，而利合於主，國之寶也。\n\n視卒如嬰兒，故可以與之赴深溪；視卒如愛子，故可與之俱死。厚而不能使，愛而不能令，亂而不能治，譬若驕子，不可用也。\n\n知吾卒之可以擊，而不知敵之不可擊，勝之半也；知敵之可擊，而不知吾卒之不可以擊，勝之半也；知敵之可擊，知吾卒之可以擊，而不知地形之不可以戰，勝之半也。故知兵者，動而不迷，舉而不窮。故曰：知彼知己，勝乃不殆；知天知地，勝乃可全。\n\n### Chapter 11 — Nine Grounds\n\n孫子曰：凡用兵之法，有散地，有輕地，有爭地，有交地，有衢地，有重地，有圮地，有圍地，有死地。諸侯自戰其地者，為散地；入人之地而不深者，為輕地；我得則利，彼得亦利者，為爭地；我可以往，彼可以來者，為交地；諸侯之地三屬，先至而得天下之衆者，為衢地；入人之地深，背城邑多者，為重地；山林、險阻、沮澤，凡難行之道者，為圮地；所由入者隘，所從歸者迂，彼寡可以擊吾之衆者，為圍地；疾戰則存，不疾戰則亡者，為死地。是故散地則無戰，輕地則無止，爭地則無攻，交地則無絕，衢地則合交，重地則掠，圮地則行，圍地則謀，死地則戰。\n\n所謂古之善用兵者，能使敵人前後不相及，衆寡不相恃，貴賤不相救，上下不相收，卒離而不集，兵合而不齊。合於利而動，不合於利而止。敢問︰「敵衆整而將來，待之若何？」曰：「先奪其所愛，則聽矣。」故兵之情主速，乘人之不及，由不虞之道，攻其所不戒也。\n\n凡為客之道，深入則專，主人不克。掠于饒野，三軍足食。謹養而勿勞，併氣積力，運兵計謀，為不可測。投之無所往，死且不北。死焉不得，士人盡力。兵士甚陷則不懼，無所往則固，深入則拘，不得已則鬥。是故其兵不修而戒，不求而得，不約而親，不令而信。禁祥去疑，至死無所之。吾士無餘財，非惡貨也；無餘命，非惡壽也。令發之日，士卒坐者涕沾襟，偃臥者淚交頤。投之無所往者，則諸、劌之勇也。\n\n故善用兵者，譬如率然。率然者，常山之蛇也。擊其首則尾至，擊其尾則首至，擊其中則首尾俱至。敢問︰「兵可使如率然乎？」曰︰「可。夫吳人與越人相惡也，當其同舟而濟。遇風，其相救也，如左右手。」是故方馬埋輪，未足恃也；齊勇如一，政之道也；剛柔皆得，地之理也。故善用兵者，攜手若使一人，不得已也。\n\n將軍之事，靜以幽，正以治。能愚士卒之耳目，使之無知；易其事，革其謀，使人無識；易其居，迂其途，使人不得慮。帥與之期，如登高而去其梯；帥與之深入諸侯之地，而發其機，焚舟破釜，若驅群羊。驅而往，驅而來，莫知所之。聚三軍之衆，投之於險，此謂將軍之事也。九地之變，屈伸之利，人情之理，不可不察也。\n\n凡為客之道，深則專，淺則散。去國越境而師者，絕地也；四達者，衢地也；入深者，重地也；入淺者，輕地也；背固前隘者，圍地也；無所往者，死地也。是故散地，吾將一其志；輕地，吾將使之屬；爭地，吾將趨其後；交地，吾將謹其守；衢地，吾將固其結；重地，吾將繼其食；圮地，吾將進其途；圍地，吾將塞其闕；死地，吾將示之以不活。故兵之情：圍則禦，不得已則鬥，過則從。\n\n是故不知諸侯之謀者，不能豫交；不知山林、險阻、沮澤之形者，不能行軍；不用鄉導者，不能得地利。四五者，不知一，非霸王之兵也。夫霸王之兵，伐大國，則其衆不得聚；威加於敵，則其交不得合。是故不爭天下之交，不養天下之權，信己之私，威加於敵，則其城可拔，其國可隳。施無法之賞，懸無政之令。犯三軍之衆，若使一人。犯之以事，勿告以言；犯之以利，勿告以害。投之亡地然後存，陷之死地然後生。夫衆陷於害，然後能為勝敗。故為兵之事，在於佯順敵之意，併敵一向，千里殺將，是謂巧能成事者也。\n\n是故政舉之日，夷關折符，無通其使；厲於廊廟之上，以誅其事。敵人開闔，必亟入之，先其所愛，微與之期，踐墨隨敵，以決戰事。是故始如處女，敵人開戶；後如脫兔，敵不及拒。\n\n### Chapter 12 — Attack by Fire\n\n孫子曰：凡火攻有五：一曰火人，二曰火積，三曰火輜，四曰火庫，五曰火隊。行火必有因，烟火必素具。發火有時，起火有日。時者，天之燥也。日者，月在箕、壁、翼、軫也。凡此四宿者，風起之日也。\n\n凡火攻，必因五火之變而應之：火發於內，則早應之於外；火發而其兵靜者，待而勿攻，極其火力，可從而從之，不可從則止；火可發於外，無待於內，以時發之；火發上風，無攻下風；晝風久，夜風止。凡軍必知有五火之變，以數守之。故以火佐攻者明，以水佐攻者強。水可以絕，不可以奪。\n\n夫戰勝攻取，而不修其功者凶，命曰「費留」。故曰：明主慮之，良將修之，非利不動，非得不用，非危不戰。主不可以怒而興師，將不可以慍而致戰。合於利而動，不合於利而止。怒可以復喜，慍可以復悅，亡國不可以復存，死者不可以復生。故明主慎之，良將警之，此安國全軍之道也。\n\n### Chapter 13 — Use of Spies\n\n孫子曰：凡興師十萬，出征千里，百姓之費，公家之奉，日費千金，內外騷動，怠于道路，不得操事者，七十萬家。相守數年，以爭一日之勝，而愛爵祿百金，不知敵之情者，不仁之至也，非人之將也，非主之佐也，非勝之主也。故明君賢將，所以動而勝人，成功出於眾者，先知也。先知者，不可取於鬼神，不可象於事，不可驗於度，必取於人，知敵之情者也。\n\n故用間有五：有鄉間，有內間，有反間，有死間，有生間。五間俱起，莫知其道，是謂「神紀」，人君之寶也。鄉間者，因其鄉人而用之；內間者，因其官人而用之；反間者，因其敵間而用之；死間者，為誑事於外，令吾間知之，而傳於敵間也；生間者，反報也。\n\n故三軍之事，莫親於間，賞莫厚於間，事莫密於間，非聖智不能用間，非仁義不能使間，非微妙不能得間之實。微哉！微哉！無所不用間也。間事未發而先聞者，間與所告者皆死。\n\n凡軍之所欲擊，城之所欲攻，人之所欲殺，必先知其守將、左右、謁者、門者、舍人之姓名，令吾間必索知之。必索敵人之間來間我者，因而利之，導而舍之，故反間可得而用也；因是而知之，故鄉間、內間可得而使也；因是而知之，故死間為誑事，可使告敵；因是而知之，故生間可使如期。五間之事，主必知之，知之必在於反間，故反間不可不厚也。\n\n昔殷之興也，伊摯在夏；周之興也，呂牙在殷。故明君賢將，能以上智為間者，必成大功。此兵之要，三軍之所恃而動也。","download_url":"https://mouseia.org/api/works/art-of-war/original.txt"},"translations":[{"id":"trn_art_of_war_mouseia","translator":"Mouseia","kind":"curated","note":"Mouseia’s complete machine-assisted Musean translation, made directly from the standard 13-chapter Classical Chinese source for fidelity, strategic precision, clarity, structure, and cadence.","text":"### Chapter 1 — Initial Assessments\n\nSunzi said: Warfare is a great affair of state, the ground of life and death, the way to survival or destruction. It must be examined. Therefore, assess it by the five fundamentals, compare it by the seven calculations, and thereby seek out its true condition. The first is the Way; the second, Heaven; the third, ground; the fourth, the commander; the fifth, method.\n\nThe Way causes the people to share the will of their ruler, so that they may die with him, may live with him, and fear no danger. Heaven comprises darkness and light, cold and heat, and the ordering of the seasons. Ground comprises high and low, far and near, difficult and easy, broad and narrow, and places of death and life. The commander comprises wisdom, trustworthiness, benevolence, courage, and sternness. Method comprises the organization of units, the regulation of officers, and the control of supplies. Every commander has heard of these five, but he who understands them is victorious, and he who does not is not victorious. Therefore, compare them by the seven calculations and seek out their true condition, asking: Which ruler possesses the Way? Which commander has ability? Who has gained the advantages of Heaven and ground? On which side are laws and orders carried out? Whose forces are stronger? Whose officers and soldiers are better trained? Whose rewards and punishments are clearer? From these I know victory and defeat.\n\nIf a commander will heed my calculations, employ him, and he will surely be victorious; retain him. If a commander will not heed my calculations, employ him, and he will surely be defeated; dismiss him. Once the advantageous calculations have been heeded, create strategic power to assist them from without. Strategic power is the control of circumstances in accordance with advantage. Warfare is the Way of deception. Therefore, when capable, show yourself incapable; when employing your forces, show yourself inactive; when near, show yourself far away; when far away, show yourself near. Lure the enemy with profit; take him when he is in disorder. When he is substantial, prepare against him; when he is strong, avoid him. When he is angry, provoke him; when he is humble, make him arrogant. When he is rested, weary him; when his forces are united, divide them. Attack where he is unprepared; emerge where he does not expect you. These are the military strategist’s means of victory; they cannot be transmitted in advance.\n\nBefore battle, he whose calculations in the ancestral temple foretell victory has made many calculations; before battle, he whose calculations in the ancestral temple do not foretell victory has made few calculations. Many calculations bring victory; few calculations do not bring victory. How much less can there be victory without calculation at all? By observing the matter in this way, victory and defeat become apparent.\n\n### Chapter 2 — Waging War\n\nSunzi said: In general, the method of employing troops is this: when there are a thousand swift chariots, a thousand leather-covered chariots, a hundred thousand armored soldiers, and provisions transported a thousand miles, then expenditures at home and in the field, allowances for envoys and guests, materials such as glue and lacquer, and the maintenance of chariots and armor will cost a thousand pieces of gold each day. Only then can an army of one hundred thousand be raised. When such an army is employed in battle, what matters is swift victory. If war is prolonged, weapons grow dull and ardor is blunted; if cities are attacked, strength is exhausted; if the army is kept long in the field, the state’s resources prove insufficient. Once weapons are dull, ardor blunted, strength exhausted, and wealth depleted, the feudal lords will rise to exploit the weakness. Then, though there may be wise men, none can make good what follows. Thus, in war we have heard of clumsy haste, but we have never seen skillful delay. Never has there been a prolonged war that benefited a state. Therefore, one who does not fully understand the harm inherent in employing troops cannot fully understand the advantages of employing them.\n\nOne skilled in employing troops does not levy soldiers twice or transport provisions three times. He draws equipment from his own state but takes provisions from the enemy; thus the army can have food enough.\n\nWhat impoverishes a state through its army is transporting supplies over great distances. When supplies are transported far, the common people are impoverished. Near an army, goods are sold at high prices; when prices are high, the people’s wealth is exhausted. When their wealth is exhausted, they are pressed by levies and labor service. With strength spent and wealth depleted, the households of the heartland are left empty. Of the common people’s resources, seven-tenths are lost; of the public treasury’s resources, six-tenths are lost through broken chariots, worn-out horses, armor and helmets, arrows and crossbows, halberds and shields, mantlets and large shields, draft oxen and heavy wagons.\n\nTherefore, a wise commander makes it his business to feed upon the enemy. One measure of the enemy’s grain is equal to twenty of ours; one load of his fodder is equal to twenty loads of ours.\n\nThus, what makes men kill the enemy is anger; what makes them seize advantage from the enemy is material reward. Therefore, in chariot fighting, when ten or more chariots are captured, reward the first man to take one, replace the enemy’s banners and flags, mingle the captured chariots with your own and use them, and treat captured soldiers well and maintain them. This is called defeating the enemy and growing stronger.\n\nThus, in war, prize victory, not protraction. Therefore, a commander who understands warfare is the arbiter of the people’s fate and the master of the state’s security or peril.\n\n### Chapter 3 — Strategic Attack\n\nSunzi said: In general, the method of employing troops is this: preserving an enemy state intact is best; destroying the state is second best. Preserving an enemy army intact is best; destroying the army is second best. Preserving an enemy brigade intact is best; destroying the brigade is second best. Preserving an enemy battalion intact is best; destroying the battalion is second best. Preserving an enemy squad intact is best; destroying the squad is second best. Therefore, to win a hundred victories in a hundred battles is not the highest excellence; to subdue the enemy’s army without battle is the highest excellence.\n\nThus, the highest form of warfare is to attack plans; the next is to attack alliances; the next is to attack armies; the lowest is to attack fortified cities. The method of attacking a city is undertaken only when unavoidable. Preparing great shields and armored assault wagons and making ready the equipment and weapons require three months; piling up earthen ramps against the walls requires another three months. If the commander cannot master his anger and sends his men swarming like ants against the walls, one-third of the officers and soldiers will be killed without the city being taken. Such is the calamity of siege warfare.\n\nTherefore, one skilled in employing troops subdues the enemy’s army without battle, takes the enemy’s cities without assault, and destroys the enemy’s state without prolonged operations. He must contend for all under Heaven with preservation as his aim. Thus his troops are not worn down, and his gains can be kept complete. This is the method of attacking by strategy.\n\nThus, the method of employing troops is this: if ten times the enemy’s strength, surround him; if five times his strength, attack him; if twice his strength, divide him; if equal to him, be able to fight him; if fewer, be able to defend against him; if inferior, be able to avoid him. Therefore, the obstinacy of a small force makes it the captive of a larger force.\n\nThe commander is the state’s supporting pillar. If the support is complete, the state will surely be strong; if the support is defective, the state will surely be weak.\n\nThere are three ways in which a ruler brings trouble upon his army. Not knowing that the army must not advance, he orders it to advance; not knowing that the army must not retreat, he orders it to retreat. This is called fettering the army. Not understanding the affairs of the three armies, he shares in their administration; then the officers and soldiers become confused. Not understanding the tactical authority of the three armies, he shares in their command; then the officers and soldiers become doubtful. Once the three armies are both confused and doubtful, trouble from the feudal lords will arrive. This is called throwing the army into disorder and leading victory away.\n\nThus there are five ways to know victory. He who knows when one can fight and when one cannot will be victorious. He who understands how to employ many and few will be victorious. He whose superiors and subordinates share the same desire will be victorious. He who is prepared and awaits the unprepared will be victorious. He whose commander is capable and is not constrained by his ruler will be victorious. These five are the Way to know victory.\n\nTherefore it is said: Know the enemy and know yourself, and in a hundred battles you will never be imperiled. Know yourself but not the enemy, and for every victory you will suffer a defeat. Know neither the enemy nor yourself, and in every battle you will surely be imperiled.\n\n### Chapter 4 — Military Form\n\nSunzi said: Those of old who were skilled in battle first made themselves invincible, then awaited the moment when the enemy could be defeated. Invincibility lies with oneself; vulnerability to defeat lies with the enemy. Therefore, one skilled in battle can make himself invincible, but cannot make the enemy necessarily vulnerable to defeat. Thus it is said: Victory can be known, but it cannot be forced.\n\nInvincibility lies in defense; vulnerability to defeat lies in attack. One defends when strength is insufficient and attacks when strength is abundant. One skilled in defense hides beneath the deepest layers of the earth; one skilled in attack moves above the highest reaches of Heaven. Thus he can preserve himself and gain complete victory.\n\nTo foresee a victory no better than the common multitude can foresee it is not the highest excellence. To win in battle and have all under Heaven acclaim your skill is not the highest excellence. Thus, lifting an autumn hair does not signify great strength; seeing the sun and moon does not signify keen sight; hearing thunder does not signify acute hearing.\n\nThose whom the ancients called skilled in battle gained victory over those who were easy to defeat. Thus, the victories of one skilled in battle bring neither a reputation for wisdom nor merit for courage. His victories in battle admit no error. They admit no error because whatever measures he takes are certain to prevail: he conquers an enemy already defeated. Therefore, one skilled in battle establishes himself on ground where he cannot be defeated and does not miss the enemy’s moment of defeat. Thus, a victorious army first secures victory and then seeks battle; a defeated army first fights and then seeks victory. One skilled in employing troops cultivates the Way and preserves method; therefore, he can govern victory and defeat.\n\nAccording to the methods of war, the first factor is measurement; the second, estimation of capacity; the third, calculation; the fourth, comparison; the fifth, victory. Ground gives rise to measurement; measurement gives rise to estimation of capacity; estimation of capacity gives rise to calculation; calculation gives rise to comparison; comparison gives rise to victory. Thus, a victorious army is like weighing a hundredweight against a grain, while a defeated army is like weighing a grain against a hundredweight. When the victor sends his people into battle, it is like releasing pent-up waters into a ravine a thousand fathoms deep. This is disposition.\n\n### Chapter 5 — Strategic Power\n\nSunzi said: In general, commanding many is like commanding few; it is a matter of divisions and numbers. Fighting with many is like fighting with few; it is a matter of formations and signals. That the multitude of the three armies can be made to withstand the enemy without defeat is a matter of extraordinary and regular forces. That the army’s blow may be like a whetstone hurled against an egg is a matter of emptiness and substance.\n\nIn every battle, engage with the regular and gain victory with the extraordinary. Therefore, one skilled in bringing forth the extraordinary is inexhaustible as Heaven and earth, unending as rivers and seas. Ending and beginning again—such are the sun and moon. Dying and being born again—such are the four seasons. There are no more than five notes, yet the transformations of the five notes can never all be heard. There are no more than five colors, yet the transformations of the five colors can never all be seen. There are no more than five flavors, yet the transformations of the five flavors can never all be tasted. In battle, strategic configurations do not exceed the extraordinary and the regular, yet the transformations of the extraordinary and the regular can never be exhausted. The extraordinary and the regular give rise to each other like a ring without beginning or end. Who can exhaust them?\n\nThe rush of pent-up water that carries stones along is strategic power; the swift strike of a bird of prey that shatters its victim is timing. Therefore, one skilled in battle makes his strategic power steep and his timing brief. His strategic power is like a drawn crossbow; his timing is like releasing the trigger.\n\nAmid tumult and uproar, the battle seems chaotic, yet cannot be thrown into disorder. Amid confusion and obscurity, the formation seems circular, yet cannot be defeated. Apparent disorder is born from order; apparent cowardice is born from courage; apparent weakness is born from strength. Order and disorder are a matter of organization; courage and cowardice, a matter of strategic power; strength and weakness, a matter of disposition.\n\nTherefore, one skilled at moving the enemy presents a disposition the enemy must follow; he offers something the enemy must take. He moves the enemy with profit and awaits him with troops.\n\nTherefore, one skilled in battle seeks victory from strategic power and does not demand it from individual men. Thus he can select men and entrust them to strategic power. One who relies on strategic power sends men into battle as though rolling logs and stones. The nature of logs and stones is to remain still on level ground and move on steep ground; if square, they stop; if round, they roll. Thus, the strategic power of one skilled at sending men into battle is like rolling round stones down a mountain a thousand fathoms high. This is strategic power.\n\n### Chapter 6 — Fullness and Emptiness\n\nSunzi said: In general, he who occupies the battleground first and awaits the enemy is at ease; he who arrives later and hastens into battle is weary. Therefore, one skilled in battle compels others and is not compelled by them.\n\nWhat can make the enemy come of his own accord is profit; what can prevent the enemy from coming is harm. Therefore, if the enemy is rested, one can weary him; if well fed, one can starve him; if settled, one can move him. Emerge where he must hasten; hasten where he does not expect you.\n\nTo march a thousand miles without weariness, travel through ground where there is no enemy. To attack and be certain of taking the objective, attack what the enemy does not defend. To defend and be certain of holding firm, defend what the enemy does not attack. Therefore, against one skilled in attack, the enemy does not know where to defend; against one skilled in defense, the enemy does not know where to attack. Subtle, subtle! He reaches the point of having no form. Divine, divine! He reaches the point of making no sound. Thus he can become the arbiter of the enemy’s fate.\n\nHe advances irresistibly by striking the enemy’s emptiness; he retreats beyond pursuit by moving too swiftly to be overtaken. Thus, when I desire battle, though the enemy has high ramparts and deep moats, he cannot avoid fighting me, because I attack what he must rescue. When I do not desire battle, though I merely draw a line upon the ground and defend it, the enemy cannot fight me, because I divert him from his intended course.\n\nTherefore, if I reveal the enemy’s disposition while remaining formless myself, I can concentrate while he must divide. I concentrate into one; he divides into ten. Thus I use ten to attack his one, so that I am many and the enemy is few. If I can use many to strike few, those with whom I do battle will be severely constrained. The place where I shall fight must remain unknown. If it is unknown, the enemy must prepare in many places; if he prepares in many places, those with whom I fight will be few. Thus, if he prepares the front, his rear will be weak; if he prepares the rear, his front will be weak; if he prepares the left, his right will be weak; if he prepares the right, his left will be weak. If he prepares everywhere, he will be weak everywhere. He who is few prepares against others; he who is many makes others prepare against him.\n\nTherefore, if one knows the place and the day of battle, one can march a thousand miles and join battle. If one knows neither the place nor the day of battle, the left cannot rescue the right, the right cannot rescue the left, the front cannot rescue the rear, and the rear cannot rescue the front—how much less when the distant are tens of miles away and even the near are several miles apart? By my reckoning, though the troops of Yue are many, what help can that be toward victory? Thus it is said: Victory can be seized. Though the enemy is numerous, he can be made unable to fight.\n\nTherefore, calculate against the enemy to learn the success or failure of his plans; provoke him to learn the principles of his movement and stillness; reveal his disposition to learn the ground of death and life; probe him to learn where he has abundance and where insufficiency. Thus, the ultimate disposition of troops is to reach formlessness. When you are formless, the deepest spy cannot discern you, nor can the wise devise plans against you. In accordance with the enemy’s disposition, one places victory before the multitude, but the multitude cannot understand it. Everyone knows the disposition by which I gained victory, but no one knows the disposition by which I controlled victory. Therefore, a victorious strategy is not repeated but responds to changing dispositions without end.\n\nThe disposition of troops resembles water. In its course, water avoids the high and hastens to the low; in gaining victory, an army avoids the substantial and strikes the empty. Water shapes its course according to the ground; an army shapes its victory according to the enemy. Therefore, an army has no fixed strategic configuration and no constant form. One who can transform himself in accordance with the enemy and thereby gain victory is called divine. Thus, among the five phases none is always victorious; among the four seasons none forever holds its place. The days are long and short; the moon wanes and waxes.\n\n### Chapter 7 — Armed Contest\n\nSunzi said: In general, the method of employing troops is this: the commander receives his charge from the ruler, assembles the army, and gathers the multitude. From the moment the opposing forces confront one another and encamp, nothing is more difficult than contending for advantage. The difficulty in contending for advantage lies in making the circuitous direct and turning adversity into gain. Therefore, take a circuitous route while luring the enemy with profit; set out after him yet arrive before him. This is to understand the calculation of the circuitous and the direct.\n\nThus, contending for advantage brings profit, and contending for advantage brings peril. If the entire army is moved to contend for advantage, it will not arrive in time; if the army is left behind to contend for advantage, the baggage and heavy equipment will be abandoned. Therefore, if men roll up their armor and hasten onward, neither resting by day nor halting by night, doubling their marches and joining stages together, and march a hundred miles to contend for advantage, the commanders of all three armies will be captured. The vigorous will arrive first, the weary will fall behind, and only one-tenth will arrive. If they march fifty miles to contend for advantage, the commander of the vanguard will be brought down, and only half will arrive. If they march thirty miles to contend for advantage, two-thirds will arrive. Thus, an army without baggage and heavy equipment perishes; without provisions it perishes; without stores it perishes. Therefore, one who does not know the plans of the feudal lords cannot enter alliances beforehand. One who does not know the configuration of mountains and forests, dangerous defiles and obstacles, marshes and swamps, cannot move an army. One who does not employ local guides cannot gain the advantages of the ground.\n\nTherefore, warfare is founded upon deception, moves according to advantage, and transforms through division and concentration. Thus, let your swiftness be like the wind, your measured advance like a forest; in invasion and plunder be like fire, in stillness be like a mountain; be inscrutable as darkness, and when you move, strike like thunder. When plundering the countryside, divide your forces; when expanding your territory, divide the gains. Weigh the balance and then move. He who first understands the calculation of the circuitous and the direct will be victorious. This is the method of contending for advantage.\n\nThe Book of Military Administration says: “Because spoken words cannot be heard one by another, gongs and drums are made; because men cannot see one another, banners and flags are made.” Gongs, drums, banners, and flags are the means of unifying the people’s ears and eyes. Once the people are unified, the courageous cannot advance alone, nor can the cowardly retreat alone. This is the method of employing a multitude. Therefore, in night fighting use many gongs and drums; in day fighting use many banners and flags. These are the means of directing the people’s ears and eyes.\n\nThe spirit of the three armies can be taken away; the commanding general’s mind can be taken away. Thus, in the morning the enemy’s spirit is keen; by midday his spirit is indolent; by evening his spirit longs to return. Therefore, one skilled in employing troops avoids the enemy’s keen spirit and strikes when his spirit is indolent or bent on returning. This is mastery of spirit. Await disorder in good order; await clamor in tranquility. This is mastery of mind. Await those from afar while near; await the weary while rested; await the hungry while well fed. This is mastery of strength. Do not intercept banners in perfect order; do not attack formations in imposing array. This is mastery of adaptation.\n\nThus, the method of employing troops is this: do not advance uphill against an enemy on high ground; do not oppose an enemy with a hill at his back; do not pursue a feigned retreat; do not attack keen troops; do not swallow baited troops; do not obstruct an army returning home; when surrounding an army, leave an opening; do not press a desperate enemy. This is the method of employing troops.\n\n### Chapter 8 — Nine Variations\n\nSunzi said: In general, the method of employing troops is this: the commander receives his charge from the ruler, assembles the army, and gathers the multitude. Do not encamp on broken ground. On intersecting ground, join alliances. Do not linger on isolated ground. On encircled ground, make plans. On death ground, fight. There are roads that must not be followed, armies that must not be attacked, cities that must not be assaulted, ground that must not be contested, and commands from the ruler that must not be obeyed. Therefore, a commander who understands the advantages of the nine adaptations knows how to employ troops. A commander who does not understand the advantages of the nine adaptations, though he knows the configuration of the ground, cannot gain its advantages. One who commands an army without knowing the art of the nine adaptations, though he knows the advantages of the ground, cannot obtain the full use of his men.\n\nTherefore, the wise man’s deliberations always mingle advantage and harm. By mingling advantage with harm, his undertakings can be trusted to succeed; by mingling harm with advantage, his troubles can be resolved. Thus, subdue the feudal lords with harm, keep the feudal lords occupied with burdens, and make the feudal lords hasten with profit.\n\nTherefore, the method of employing troops is not to rely on the enemy’s failure to come, but on our readiness to receive him; not to rely on his failure to attack, but on our possession of a position that cannot be attacked.\n\nThus, a commander has five dangers: if determined to die, he can be killed; if determined to live, he can be captured; if quick to anger, he can be provoked; if scrupulous about honor, he can be humiliated; if he loves the people, he can be troubled. These five are faults in a commander and calamities in employing troops. The destruction of an army and the death of its commander inevitably arise from these five dangers. They must be examined.\n\n### Chapter 9 — Marching the Army\n\nSunzi said: In general, when stationing an army and observing the enemy, cross mountains by keeping near valleys; face the sun and occupy high ground; when fighting on elevated ground, do not climb to attack. This is how to station an army in mountains. After crossing a river, you must move far from the water. When an invading enemy crosses a river to approach, do not meet him in the water. Let half his force cross and then strike him; this is advantageous. If you desire battle, do not meet an invader close beside the water. Face the sun and occupy high ground; do not face the current. This is how to station an army near water. Cross salt marshes quickly; do not linger. If you encounter an enemy within a salt marsh, you must keep near water and grass, with masses of trees at your back. This is how to station an army in salt marshes. On level ground, occupy easy terrain with high ground to your right and rear, deadly ground before you and secure ground behind you. This is how to station an army on level ground. These four advantageous ways of stationing an army enabled the Yellow Emperor to conquer the Four Emperors.\n\nIn general, an army prefers high ground and detests low ground, esteems sunlight and disdains shade, nourishes life and occupies substantial ground. Then the army will be free of a hundred illnesses. This is called certain victory. Among hills, embankments, and dikes, always occupy the sunny side and keep them to your right and rear. This is the advantage of warfare and the assistance of the ground. When rain has fallen upstream and foam comes down upon the water, if you wish to cross, wait until the waters subside.\n\nWherever the ground contains sheer ravines, Heaven’s Wells, Heaven’s Prisons, Heaven’s Nets, Heaven’s Pits, or Heaven’s Fissures, you must leave quickly and not approach them. Keep them far from us and near the enemy; face them while making the enemy place them at his back. If near the army there are dangerous defiles and obstacles, ponds and hollows, reeds and rushes, forests, or dense undergrowth, these must be searched thoroughly and carefully, for these are places where ambushes and spies conceal themselves.\n\nWhen the enemy is near yet quiet, he relies on the strength of his ground. When he is far away yet challenges you to battle, he wants you to advance. When the place he occupies is easy of access, he is offering an advantage. When masses of trees move, he is coming. When many screens appear among the grass, he seeks to arouse suspicion. When birds rise in flight, there is an ambush. When wild beasts are startled, a surprise attack is coming. When dust rises high and sharp, chariots are approaching. When it hangs low and spreads broadly, infantry is approaching. When it is scattered in separate streaks, men are gathering firewood. When small clouds of dust move to and fro, the army is making camp. Humble words accompanied by increased preparations mean he will advance. Forceful words accompanied by an impetuous approach mean he will retreat. When light chariots emerge first and take position on the wings, he is forming for battle. When he seeks peace without a sworn covenant, he is plotting. When men rush about and troops are arrayed, the appointed moment has come. When some advance and others retreat, he is enticing you. When men lean on their weapons while standing, they are hungry. When water carriers drink before bearing water back, they are thirsty. When they see an advantage but do not advance, they are weary. When birds gather, the place is empty. When men call out at night, they are afraid. When the army is disturbed, the commander lacks authority. When banners and flags move about, there is disorder. When officers are angry, the men are exhausted. When they feed grain to horses, slaughter livestock for food, do not hang up their cooking pots, and do not return to their shelters, they are desperate enemies. When men gather in little groups and speak softly and at length, the commander has lost the multitude. Frequent rewards indicate distress; frequent punishments indicate exhaustion. He who is first brutal and afterward fears his men has reached the extreme of incompetence. Envoys who come with conciliatory messages seek a respite. If the troops angrily confront each other for a long time without joining battle and without withdrawing, the situation must be examined with the utmost care.\n\nThus, in war, mere superiority in numbers is not what is prized. It is enough not to advance recklessly, but to concentrate strength, assess the enemy, and win the support of your men. He who lacks forethought and treats the enemy lightly will surely be captured by others.\n\nIf soldiers are punished before they have grown attached to you, they will not submit; if they do not submit, they will be difficult to employ. If soldiers have already grown attached to you but punishments are not enforced, they cannot be employed. Therefore, command them through civil means and unify them through martial discipline. This is called certain victory. If orders have consistently been enforced when instructing the people, the people will submit. If orders have not consistently been enforced when instructing the people, the people will not submit. Consistent enforcement of orders means that the commander and the multitude are in accord.\n\n### Chapter 10 — Terrain\n\nSunzi said: In general, configurations of ground include accessible ground, entangling ground, temporizing ground, constricted ground, precipitous ground, and distant ground. Ground across which we can go and the enemy can come is called accessible. On accessible ground, first occupy high, sunny positions and secure your supply routes; then battle will be advantageous. Ground across which one can go but from which it is difficult to return is called entangling. On entangling ground, if the enemy is unprepared, go forth and defeat him. If the enemy is prepared and you go forth without defeating him, it will be difficult to return, and this is disadvantageous. Ground upon which it is disadvantageous for us to go forth and disadvantageous for the enemy to go forth is called temporizing. On temporizing ground, though the enemy offers us an advantage, we must not go forth. Draw away and depart, causing the enemy to come halfway out, then strike him; this is advantageous. On constricted ground, if we occupy it first, we must fill it completely and await the enemy. If the enemy occupies it first and has filled it completely, do not follow him; if he has not filled it completely, follow him. On precipitous ground, if we occupy it first, we must occupy high, sunny positions and await the enemy. If the enemy occupies it first, draw away and depart; do not follow him. On distant ground, if forces are evenly matched, it is difficult to provoke battle, and fighting is disadvantageous. These six are the Ways of ground. They are the commander’s highest responsibility and must be examined.\n\nThus, an army may flee, become insubordinate, collapse, crumble, fall into disorder, or be routed. These six are not calamities from Heaven but faults of the commander. When forces are evenly matched and one attacks ten, the result is flight. When soldiers are strong and officers weak, the result is insubordination. When officers are strong and soldiers weak, the result is collapse. When senior officers are angry and insubordinate, and on meeting the enemy act from resentment and fight on their own because the commander does not know their abilities, the result is crumbling. When the commander is weak and not stern, his instruction and direction are unclear, officers and soldiers lack fixed duties, and the battle lines are drawn up every which way, the result is disorder. When the commander cannot assess the enemy, pits a small force against a large one, attacks strength with weakness, and has no picked vanguard among his troops, the result is rout. These six are Ways to defeat. They are the commander’s highest responsibility and must be examined.\n\nThe configuration of the ground is an aid to the army. Assessing the enemy to control victory, and calculating dangers, constrictions, distances, and proximities, constitute the Way of a superior commander. He who knows these things and employs them in battle will surely be victorious; he who does not know them and employs troops in battle will surely be defeated. Therefore, if the Way of battle ensures victory, it is permissible to fight even if the ruler says not to fight. If the Way of battle does not ensure victory, it is permissible not to fight even if the ruler says that battle is imperative. Thus, a commander who advances without seeking fame and retreats without avoiding blame, whose sole concern is to protect the people and whose actions accord with the ruler’s advantage, is the treasure of the state.\n\nRegard your soldiers as infants, and you can lead them into the deepest ravines. Regard your soldiers as beloved sons, and they can die with you. But if you treat them generously and cannot employ them, love them and cannot command them, or let them fall into disorder and cannot govern them, they are like spoiled children and cannot be used.\n\nTo know that our soldiers can attack, but not to know that the enemy cannot be attacked, is only half the knowledge needed for victory. To know that the enemy can be attacked, but not to know that our soldiers cannot attack, is only half the knowledge needed for victory. To know that the enemy can be attacked and that our soldiers can attack, but not to know that the configuration of the ground makes battle impossible, is only half the knowledge needed for victory. Therefore, one who understands warfare moves without confusion and acts without exhaustion. Thus it is said: Know the enemy and know yourself, and your victory will never be imperiled. Know Heaven and know ground, and your victory can be complete.\n\n### Chapter 11 — Nine Grounds\n\nSunzi said: In general, the method of employing troops recognizes dispersive ground, light ground, contested ground, intersecting ground, focal ground, heavy ground, broken ground, encircled ground, and death ground. When feudal lords fight within their own territory, it is dispersive ground. When one enters another’s territory but not deeply, it is light ground. Ground whose possession benefits us and also benefits the enemy is contested ground. Ground across which we can go and the enemy can come is intersecting ground. Territory bordered by three feudal domains, where he who arrives first can gain the support of the multitude under Heaven, is focal ground. When one penetrates deeply into another’s territory and leaves many fortified cities and towns behind, it is heavy ground. Mountain forests, dangerous defiles and obstacles, marshes and swamps, and all roads difficult to traverse constitute broken ground. Ground whose entrance is constricted, whose route of return is circuitous, and where a small enemy force can strike our multitude is encircled ground. Ground on which swift battle means survival and failure to fight swiftly means destruction is death ground. Therefore, do not fight on dispersive ground; do not halt on light ground; do not attack on contested ground; do not let your formations be cut off on intersecting ground; join alliances on focal ground; plunder on heavy ground; keep moving on broken ground; make plans on encircled ground; fight on death ground.\n\nThose of old who were said to be skilled in employing troops could prevent the enemy’s front and rear from reaching each other, his many and few from relying on each other, his noble and lowly from rescuing each other, and his superiors and inferiors from supporting each other. They could make his soldiers separate and unable to gather, and make his troops assemble without being in order. They moved when it accorded with advantage and stopped when it did not. Someone dares ask: “If the enemy is numerous, orderly, and about to advance, how should we meet him?” I reply: “Seize first what he loves, and he will heed you.” Thus, the essential nature of war is speed: take advantage of the enemy’s failure to reach a point in time, proceed by routes he has not considered, and attack where he is not on guard.\n\nIn general, the Way of an invading army is this: when it penetrates deeply, its men become united, and the defender cannot overcome them. Plunder fertile country so that the three armies have food enough. Carefully nourish the men and do not weary them; unite their spirit and accumulate their strength. Maneuver the army and devise plans so that you are unfathomable. Cast the troops where they have nowhere to go, and they will die rather than flee. If they are ready to die, how can officers and men fail to exert their utmost strength? When soldiers are deeply trapped, they feel no fear; when they have nowhere to go, they stand firm; when they penetrate deeply, they cling together; when there is no alternative, they fight. Therefore, such troops remain vigilant without being drilled, do what is required without being asked, are close-knit without sworn covenants, and can be trusted without commands. Prohibit omens and banish doubts, and they will go nowhere else until death. If our officers possess no surplus wealth, it is not because they despise material goods; if they possess no surplus life, it is not because they despise longevity. On the day the order to advance is issued, seated officers and soldiers wet their lapels with tears, while those lying down let tears run across their cheeks. Cast them where they have nowhere to go, and they will show the courage of Zhuan Zhu and Cao Gui.\n\nThus, one skilled in employing troops may be compared to the Swift Snake. The Swift Snake is the serpent of Mount Chang. Strike its head, and its tail arrives; strike its tail, and its head arrives; strike its middle, and both head and tail arrive. Someone dares ask: “Can an army be made like the Swift Snake?” I reply: “It can. The men of Wu and the men of Yue hate one another, yet when they cross a river in the same boat and encounter a storm, they rescue one another like the left hand and the right.” Therefore, hobbling horses and burying chariot wheels are not enough to rely upon. Making courage uniform throughout the army is the Way of government; making both strong and weak serve their purpose is the principle of ground. Thus, one skilled in employing troops leads them by the hand as though directing a single man, because they have no alternative.\n\nThe business of a general is to be tranquil and inscrutable, upright and orderly. He must be able to make his officers and soldiers ignorant in ear and eye, keeping them from knowledge. He changes his affairs and alters his plans, keeping others from recognizing them; he shifts his encampments and takes circuitous routes, keeping others from anticipating him. When the commander appoints a task for his men, it is as though he leads them up a height and removes the ladder. When the commander leads them deep into the territory of the feudal lords and releases the trigger, he burns the boats and smashes the cooking pots, driving them like a flock of sheep. They are driven this way and that, and none knows where they are going. To gather the multitude of the three armies and cast them into danger—this is the business of a general. The transformations of the nine kinds of ground, the advantages of contraction and extension, and the principles of human nature must be examined.\n\nIn general, the Way of an invading army is this: deep penetration brings unity; shallow penetration brings dispersion. When one leaves one’s own state, crosses the border, and leads an army abroad, that is isolated ground. Ground open in four directions is focal ground. Deep penetration is heavy ground. Shallow penetration is light ground. Ground with strongholds behind and constrictions ahead is encircled ground. Ground with nowhere to go is death ground. Therefore, on dispersive ground I would unify the men’s wills; on light ground I would keep them connected; on contested ground I would hasten up the rear; on intersecting ground I would carefully guard the defenses; on focal ground I would strengthen alliances; on heavy ground I would maintain a continuous flow of provisions; on broken ground I would press forward along the roads; on encircled ground I would block the openings; on death ground I would show them that there is no chance of survival. Thus, the nature of soldiers is to resist when surrounded, to fight when there is no alternative, and to obey when deeply imperiled.\n\nTherefore, one who does not know the plans of the feudal lords cannot enter alliances beforehand. One who does not know the configuration of mountains and forests, dangerous defiles and obstacles, marshes and swamps, cannot move an army. One who does not employ local guides cannot gain the advantages of the ground. He who is ignorant of even one among these several matters does not command the army of a hegemon or true king. When the army of a hegemon or true king attacks a great state, that state’s multitudes cannot assemble; when his might bears down upon the enemy, the enemy’s allies cannot unite. Therefore, he does not contend for alliances under Heaven, nor does he foster the authority of others under Heaven. He trusts his own private designs and brings his might to bear upon the enemy; thus he can take the enemy’s cities and overthrow the enemy’s state. Bestow rewards that transcend established law and issue commands beyond ordinary government. Direct the multitude of the three armies as though employing a single man. Set them tasks, but do not explain them in words; show them the advantage, but do not tell them the harm. Cast them upon ground of destruction, and only then will they survive; sink them into death ground, and only then will they live. Only after the multitude has been plunged into danger can it determine victory or defeat. Thus, the business of warfare lies in feigning compliance with the enemy’s intentions, concentrating against him in a single direction, and marching a thousand miles to kill his commander. This is called accomplishing affairs through skill and ability.\n\nTherefore, on the day the government resolves to mobilize, close the passes and break the tallies, permitting no enemy envoy to pass. Deliberate sternly in the ancestral temple in order to execute the plans. When the enemy opens a door, you must rush through it. Seize first what he loves, and subtly adjust your timing to his. Follow the marked line in accordance with the enemy in order to decide the business of battle. Thus, at first be like a maiden, and the enemy will open his door; afterward be like a hare loosed from the snare, and the enemy will be unable to resist.\n\n### Chapter 12 — Attack by Fire\n\nSunzi said: In general, there are five kinds of fire attack. The first is burning men; the second, burning stores; the third, burning baggage trains; the fourth, burning arsenals; the fifth, burning lines of transport. To carry out a fire attack there must be a means, and incendiary materials must always be prepared. There are proper seasons for setting fires and proper days for raising them. The proper season is when the weather is dry. The proper days are when the moon is in the constellations Basket, Wall, Wings, or Crossbar. These four lunar lodges mark days when winds arise.\n\nIn every fire attack, one must respond according to the transformations of the five fires. When fire breaks out within the enemy’s camp, respond swiftly from without. If fire breaks out but his troops remain quiet, wait and do not attack. Let the fire reach the height of its power; if you can follow it with an attack, do so, and if you cannot, stop. If fire can be set from without, do not wait for it to be set within; ignite it at the proper time. When fire is set upwind, do not attack from downwind. A wind that blows long during the day will cease at night. Every army must understand the transformations of the five fires and guard for the proper calculations. Thus, one who assists an attack with fire is enlightened; one who assists an attack with water is powerful. Water can cut the enemy off, but cannot deprive him of everything.\n\nTo win battles and take objectives without cultivating the fruits of those achievements is disastrous; this is called “wasteful delay.” Therefore it is said: An enlightened ruler must consider it, and a good commander must cultivate it. If there is no advantage, do not move; if there is nothing to gain, do not employ troops; if there is no danger, do not fight. A ruler must not raise an army out of anger; a commander must not bring on battle out of resentment. Move when it accords with advantage; stop when it does not accord with advantage. Anger can return to joy, and resentment can return to pleasure, but a destroyed state cannot return to existence, nor can the dead return to life. Therefore, the enlightened ruler is cautious, and the good commander is vigilant. This is the Way to keep the state secure and the army whole.\n\n### Chapter 13 — Use of Spies\n\nSunzi said: In general, when an army of one hundred thousand is raised and sent on a campaign a thousand miles away, the expenses of the common people and the outlays of the public treasury will amount to a thousand pieces of gold each day. There will be turmoil at home and abroad; men will collapse from exhaustion on the roads; and seven hundred thousand households will be unable to pursue their work. Armies may confront each other for several years to contend for victory on a single day. Yet if one begrudges ranks, emoluments, and a hundred pieces of gold and therefore remains ignorant of the enemy’s condition, this is the height of inhumanity. Such a man is no general of the people, no assistant to his ruler, and no master of victory. Thus, what enables enlightened rulers and worthy commanders to move and conquer others, achieving success beyond the multitude, is foreknowledge. Foreknowledge cannot be obtained from ghosts and spirits, cannot be inferred by analogy from events, and cannot be verified by calculations. It must be obtained from men who know the enemy’s condition.\n\nTherefore, there are five kinds of spies: local spies, inside spies, turned spies, doomed spies, and surviving spies. When all five kinds are active together and no one knows their methods, this is called the “divine web,” and it is the treasure of the ruler. Local spies are recruited from among the enemy’s local people. Inside spies are recruited from among the enemy’s officials. Turned spies are recruited from among the enemy’s spies. Doomed spies carry deceptive information abroad: we let our own spies know it and have them transmit it to the enemy’s spies. Surviving spies return to report.\n\nThus, among all affairs of the three armies, none is more intimate than relations with spies; no rewards are richer than those given to spies; no affairs are more secret than matters of espionage. Without sagely wisdom, one cannot employ spies; without benevolence and righteousness, one cannot command spies; without subtlety and discernment, one cannot obtain the truth from spies. Subtle indeed! Subtle indeed! There is nowhere that spies cannot be employed. If a matter of espionage is heard before it has been carried out, both the spy and the person to whom he disclosed it must die.\n\nWhenever there is an army you wish to strike, a city you wish to attack, or a person you wish to kill, you must first know the names of the defending commander, his attendants, his ushers, his gatekeepers, and his chamberlains. Order your spies to investigate and learn them all. Enemy spies who have come to spy upon us must be sought out. Lure them with profit, guide them, and lodge them; thus turned spies can be obtained and employed. Through the knowledge gained from them, local spies and inside spies can be found and employed. Through the knowledge gained from them, doomed spies can carry deceptive information to the enemy. Through the knowledge gained from them, surviving spies can return as scheduled. The ruler must know the affairs of all five kinds of spies, and this knowledge must come from turned spies. Therefore, turned spies must be treated with the utmost generosity.\n\nFormerly, when Yin arose, Yi Zhi was in Xia; when Zhou arose, Lü Ya was in Yin. Therefore, enlightened rulers and worthy commanders who can employ men of supreme wisdom as spies will surely accomplish great achievements. This is the essential matter in warfare, upon which the three armies rely in order to move.","download_url":"https://mouseia.org/api/works/art-of-war/translations/trn_art_of_war_mouseia.txt"},{"id":"trn_art_of_war_plain","translator":"Mouseia","kind":"plain","note":"Mouseia’s complete Plain English edition, made independently and directly from all 13 chapters and 74 source paragraphs.","text":"### Chapter 1 — Initial Assessments\n\nSunzi said: Warfare is a nation’s great undertaking, the ground of life and death, the way to survival or destruction. It must be carefully examined. Therefore, assess it by means of five factors, compare it by means of seven calculations, and thereby determine the true situation. The first is the Way, the second Heaven, the third Earth, the fourth the commander, and the fifth organization.\n\nThe Way causes the people to share the same purpose as their ruler, so that they may die with him, live with him, and fear no danger. Heaven means darkness and light, cold and heat, and the constraints of the seasons. Earth means high and low ground, far and near, difficult and easy terrain, broad and narrow ground, and places of death and life. The commander means wisdom, trustworthiness, benevolence, courage, and strictness. Organization means the division and regulation of forces, the chain of command, and the control of expenditures. Every commander has heard of these five factors. Those who understand them will win; those who do not will not win. Therefore, compare the sides by means of seven calculations and thereby determine the true situation: Which ruler possesses the Way? Which commander is more capable? Which side has the advantages of Heaven and Earth? Which side carries out its laws and orders? Which army is stronger? Which officers and soldiers are better trained? Which side’s rewards and punishments are clearer? From these, I know victory and defeat.\n\nIf a commander listens to my calculations, employing him will certainly bring victory, so retain him. If a commander does not listen to my calculations, employing him will certainly bring defeat, so dismiss him. Once the advantages of my calculations have been heard, create a strategic advantage to support them from outside. Strategic advantage means controlling the balance of circumstances in accordance with what is advantageous. Warfare is the way of deception. Therefore, when capable, appear incapable; when employing forces, appear inactive; when near, appear far away; when far away, appear near. Lure the enemy with profit; take him when he is in disorder; prepare against him when he is substantial; avoid him when he is strong. If he is irritable, provoke him; if he is humble, make him arrogant; if he is rested, wear him down; if his forces are united, divide them. Attack where he is unprepared; emerge where he does not expect you. These are the military strategist’s means of victory, and they cannot be disclosed in advance.\n\nThose who, before battle, calculate victory in the ancestral temple have obtained many favorable calculations. Those who, before battle, calculate that they will not win have obtained few favorable calculations. Many calculations bring victory; few calculations do not bring victory. How much less can one win with no calculations at all? By observing the matter in this way, victory and defeat become apparent.\n\n### Chapter 2 — Waging War\n\nSunzi said: As a general rule for employing an army, if there are a thousand swift four-horse chariots, a thousand leather-covered chariots, a hundred thousand armored troops, and provisions transported a thousand miles, then the expenses at home and in the field, the costs of entertaining envoys and advisers, materials such as glue and lacquer, and the maintenance of chariots and armor will amount to a thousand pieces of gold a day. Only then can an army of a hundred thousand be mobilized. When such an army is used in battle, what matters is swift victory. If the campaign is prolonged, weapons grow dull and ardor is blunted. If cities are attacked, strength is exhausted. If an army remains in the field for long, the state’s resources become inadequate. Once weapons are dull, ardor blunted, strength exhausted, and wealth depleted, the other lords will take advantage of this weakness and rise against you. Even if you have wise advisers, they will be unable to make the outcome favorable. Thus, in warfare we have heard of clumsy haste, but we have never seen skillful delay. There has never been a prolonged war that benefited a state. Therefore, one who does not fully understand the harms of employing an army cannot fully understand the advantages of employing an army.\n\nThose skilled in employing an army do not levy troops a second time and do not transport provisions a third time. They obtain equipment from their own state but take provisions from the enemy; therefore, the army can have sufficient food.\n\nA state is impoverished by its army when supplies must be transported far away. When supplies are transported far away, the common people become poor. Near an army, prices rise; when prices rise, the common people’s wealth is exhausted. When their wealth is exhausted, they are pressed by levies and labor service. With strength exhausted and wealth depleted, households within the heartland are left empty. Seven-tenths of the people’s resources are lost. Of the public resources, broken chariots, worn-out horses, armor and helmets, arrows and crossbows, halberds and shields, protective mantlets, draft oxen, and heavy wagons consume six-tenths.\n\nTherefore, a wise commander makes every effort to feed his army from the enemy. One measure of the enemy’s grain is equivalent to twenty of ours, and one measure of his bean stalks and straw is equivalent to twenty of ours.\n\nTherefore, what makes soldiers kill the enemy is anger; what makes them seize advantage from the enemy is material reward. Thus, in chariot fighting, when ten or more chariots are captured, reward the first to capture one, replace the enemy’s banners and flags, mix the captured chariots with your own and use them, and treat captured soldiers well and care for them. This is called defeating the enemy and becoming stronger.\n\nTherefore, warfare values victory, not prolonged operations. Thus, a commander who understands warfare is the arbiter of the people’s lives and the master of the state’s security or danger.\n\n### Chapter 3 — Strategic Attack\n\nSunzi said: As a general rule for employing an army, preserving an enemy state intact is best; destroying it is second best. Preserving an enemy army intact is best; destroying it is second best. Preserving an enemy brigade intact is best; destroying it is second best. Preserving an enemy battalion intact is best; destroying it is second best. Preserving an enemy squad intact is best; destroying it is second best. Therefore, winning a hundred victories in a hundred battles is not the best of the best. Subduing the enemy’s army without battle is the best of the best.\n\nTherefore, the highest form of warfare is to attack the enemy’s plans; next is to attack his alliances; next is to attack his army; and the lowest is to attack his cities. The method of attacking cities should be used only when unavoidable. Preparing large shields and siege wagons and assembling equipment and weapons takes three months to complete; building earthworks against the walls takes another three months. If the commander cannot control his anger and sends his men swarming up the walls like ants, a third of the officers and soldiers may be killed without the city being taken. This is the disaster of attacking cities.\n\nTherefore, one skilled in employing an army subdues the enemy’s army without battle, takes the enemy’s cities without assault, and destroys the enemy’s state without prolonged operations. He must contend for all under Heaven while preserving it intact. Thus, his army is not worn down, and his gains can be kept complete. This is the method of attacking by strategy.\n\nTherefore, the method of employing an army is this: if ten times the enemy’s strength, surround him; if five times his strength, attack him; if twice his strength, divide him; if equal in strength, be able to fight him; if fewer, be able to defend against him; if greatly inferior, be able to avoid him. Therefore, a small force that stubbornly resists will be captured by a larger force.\n\nThe commander is the state’s supporting pillar. If the support is complete, the state will certainly be strong; if there are gaps in the support, the state will certainly be weak.\n\nThere are three ways a ruler brings trouble upon his army. Not knowing that the army cannot advance, he orders it to advance; not knowing that the army cannot retreat, he orders it to retreat. This is called tying up the army. Not understanding the affairs of the armed forces, he interferes in their administration, and the officers and soldiers become confused. Not understanding the flexible exercise of military authority, he interferes in military appointments, and the officers and soldiers become doubtful. Once the armed forces are confused and doubtful, trouble from the other lords will arrive. This is called throwing the army into disorder and giving victory away.\n\nTherefore, there are five ways to know victory. One who knows when battle is possible and when it is not will win. One who understands how to use both large and small forces will win. One whose superiors and subordinates share the same purpose will win. One who is prepared and waits for an unprepared enemy will win. One whose commander is capable and is not constrained by the ruler will win. These five are the way to know victory.\n\nTherefore it is said: Know the enemy and know yourself, and you will not be imperiled in a hundred battles. If you do not know the enemy but know yourself, you will win one and lose one. If you know neither the enemy nor yourself, you will be imperiled in every battle.\n\n### Chapter 4 — Military Form\n\nSunzi said: Those skilled in warfare in ancient times first made themselves invincible and then waited for the enemy to become vulnerable. Invincibility lies with oneself; vulnerability lies with the enemy. Therefore, those skilled in warfare can make themselves invincible, but they cannot make the enemy certain to become vulnerable. Thus it is said: Victory can be known, but it cannot always be forced.\n\nInvincibility lies in defense; vulnerability lies in attack. One defends when strength is insufficient and attacks when strength is more than sufficient. Those skilled in defense hide beneath the deepest layers of the earth; those skilled in attack move above the highest reaches of Heaven. Thus, they can preserve themselves and achieve complete victory.\n\nForeseeing a victory no better than the ordinary person can foresee is not the best of the best. Winning a battle so that all under Heaven praise your skill is not the best of the best. Lifting an autumn hair does not show great strength; seeing the sun and moon does not show keen eyesight; hearing thunder does not show sharp hearing.\n\nThose whom ancient people called skilled in warfare won victories over enemies who were easy to defeat. Therefore, the victories of those skilled in warfare bring neither a reputation for wisdom nor credit for courage. Their victories in battle are never mistaken. They are never mistaken because whatever measures they take are certain to win: they conquer an enemy who is already defeated. Therefore, those skilled in warfare establish themselves on ground where they cannot be defeated and do not miss the moment when the enemy can be defeated. Thus, a victorious army first wins and then seeks battle; a defeated army first fights and then seeks victory. Those skilled in employing an army cultivate the Way and preserve organization, and therefore can control victory and defeat.\n\nThe method of warfare has five stages: first, measurement; second, estimation of capacity; third, calculation of numbers; fourth, weighing relative strength; and fifth, victory. Ground gives rise to measurement; measurement gives rise to estimation of capacity; estimation of capacity gives rise to calculation of numbers; calculation of numbers gives rise to weighing relative strength; weighing relative strength gives rise to victory. Thus, a victorious army is like weighing a heavy measure against a tiny grain, while a defeated army is like weighing a tiny grain against a heavy measure. When the victor sends his men into battle, it is like releasing pent-up water into a gorge a thousand fathoms deep. This is disposition.\n\n### Chapter 5 — Strategic Power\n\nSunzi said: In general, managing many troops is like managing few; it is a matter of divisions and numbers. Fighting with many troops is like fighting with few; it is a matter of signals and commands. To ensure that the entire army can withstand the enemy’s attack without defeat is a matter of conventional and extraordinary forces. For the army’s blow to be like a whetstone hurled against an egg is a matter of emptiness and solidity.\n\nIn every battle, engage the enemy with conventional forces and win with extraordinary forces. Therefore, one skilled at producing extraordinary maneuvers is as inexhaustible as Heaven and Earth and as unending as rivers and seas. Ending and beginning again is like the sun and moon. Dying and being born again is like the four seasons. There are no more than five musical notes, yet the variations of the five notes can never all be heard. There are no more than five colors, yet the variations of the five colors can never all be seen. There are no more than five flavors, yet the variations of the five flavors can never all be tasted. In battle, there are no more than conventional and extraordinary forces, yet the variations of conventional and extraordinary forces can never be exhausted. Conventional and extraordinary forces produce each other like a circle with no beginning or end. Who can exhaust their possibilities?\n\nThe rush of torrential water that can carry stones along is strategic force. The swift strike of a bird of prey that can crush its victim is timing. Therefore, one skilled in warfare builds an overwhelming strategic force and releases it with compressed timing. Strategic force is like a drawn crossbow; timing is like releasing its trigger.\n\nAmid turbulence and confusion, the battle seems chaotic, yet cannot be thrown into disorder. Amid indistinct and formless movement, the disposition is rounded and cannot be defeated. Apparent disorder arises from good order; apparent cowardice arises from courage; apparent weakness arises from strength. Order and disorder are matters of organization; courage and cowardice are matters of strategic force; strength and weakness are matters of disposition.\n\nTherefore, one skilled at moving the enemy presents a disposition that the enemy is certain to follow; he offers something that the enemy is certain to take. He moves the enemy with profit and waits for him with troops.\n\nTherefore, one skilled in warfare seeks victory from strategic force and does not demand it from individual men. He can therefore select men and let strategic force carry them. One who relies on strategic force uses his men in battle like rolling logs and stones. It is the nature of logs and stones to remain still on level ground and move on steep ground; if square, they stop, and if round, they roll. Therefore, the strategic force of one skilled at directing men in battle is like rolling round stones down a mountain a thousand fathoms high. This is strategic force.\n\n### Chapter 6 — Fullness and Emptiness\n\nSunzi said: In general, the one who occupies the battlefield first and waits for the enemy is rested; the one who arrives later and rushes into battle is weary. Therefore, one skilled in warfare makes the enemy come to him and is not made to go to the enemy.\n\nWhat makes the enemy come of his own accord is the prospect of profit; what keeps the enemy from coming is the prospect of harm. Therefore, if the enemy is rested, you can wear him down; if he is well fed, you can starve him; if he is settled, you can make him move. Emerge where he must hurry to defend; hurry to where he does not expect you.\n\nAn army can march a thousand miles without weariness when it travels through ground where there is no enemy. An attack is certain to succeed when it strikes where the enemy does not defend. A defense is certain to hold when it guards what the enemy does not attack. Therefore, against one skilled in attack, the enemy does not know where to defend; against one skilled in defense, the enemy does not know where to attack. Subtle, so subtle that he reaches the formless; mysterious, so mysterious that he makes no sound. Thus, he can become the arbiter of the enemy’s fate.\n\nAn advance that cannot be resisted strikes the enemy’s empty places. A retreat that cannot be pursued moves so swiftly that it cannot be overtaken. Therefore, if I want battle, even though the enemy has high ramparts and deep ditches, he will have no choice but to fight me because I attack a place he must rescue. If I do not want battle, even if I defend only a line drawn on the ground, the enemy will be unable to fight me because I divert him from the direction he wants to take.\n\nTherefore, expose the enemy’s disposition while remaining formless yourself, and your forces will be concentrated while the enemy’s are divided. If we are concentrated into one force while the enemy is divided into ten, then we use ten against one. Thus, we are many and the enemy is few. If we can use many to strike few, then those we actually fight will be limited. The enemy must not know the ground on which we intend to fight. If he does not know it, he must prepare in many places. If he prepares in many places, those we actually fight in any one place will be few. If he prepares the front, his rear will be weak; if he prepares the rear, his front will be weak; if he prepares the left, his right will be weak; if he prepares the right, his left will be weak. If he prepares everywhere, he will be weak everywhere. The side with few troops is the one that prepares against others; the side with many is the one that makes others prepare against it.\n\nTherefore, if you know the place and day of battle, you can march a thousand miles and assemble to fight. If you know neither the place nor the day of battle, the left cannot rescue the right, the right cannot rescue the left, the front cannot rescue the rear, and the rear cannot rescue the front. How much more is this true when distant units are tens of miles apart and even nearby units are several miles apart? By my assessment, even though the troops of Yue are numerous, how can that help them determine victory or defeat? Thus it is said: Victory can be taken into one’s own hands. Even if the enemy is numerous, he can be prevented from fighting effectively.\n\nTherefore, calculate the enemy’s plans and learn their strengths and weaknesses. Provoke him and learn the principles governing his movement and stillness. Expose his disposition and learn the ground of death and life. Probe him and learn where he has more than enough and where he has too little. Therefore, the ultimate disposition of an army is to reach formlessness. When it is formless, even deeply placed spies cannot observe it, and wise advisers cannot devise plans against it. In response to the enemy’s disposition, lay victory before the multitude, but the multitude cannot understand it. Everyone knows the disposition by which I won, but no one knows the disposition by which I controlled the victory. Therefore, a victorious method is not repeated but adapts its disposition in endlessly varying ways.\n\nThe disposition of an army resembles water. Water’s movement avoids high ground and rushes downward; an army’s victory avoids solidity and strikes emptiness. Water determines its course according to the ground; an army determines victory according to the enemy. Therefore, an army has no fixed strategic force and no constant disposition. One who can change and transform according to the enemy and thereby win is called divine. Of the Five Phases, none is constantly dominant. Of the four seasons, none remains in place. The days are short and long; the moon wanes and waxes.\n\n### Chapter 7 — Armed Contest\n\nSunzi said: As a general rule for employing an army, the commander receives his orders from the ruler, assembles the army and gathers the troops, and establishes camp when the forces confront each other. Nothing is more difficult than the contest for advantage. The difficulty in the contest for advantage is turning the indirect into the direct and misfortune into advantage. Therefore, take an indirect route, lure the enemy with profit, set out after him, and arrive before him. This is understanding the calculation of indirect and direct routes.\n\nThus, the contest for advantage can bring profit, and the contest for advantage can bring danger. If the entire army competes for advantage, it will not arrive in time. If the army is abandoned to compete for advantage, the baggage and heavy equipment will be lost. Therefore, if troops roll up their armor and rush forward, stopping neither day nor night and doubling their normal marches, then in a contest for advantage a hundred miles away, the commanders of all three armies will be captured. The strong arrive first, the weary fall behind, and by this method only one-tenth arrive. In a contest for advantage fifty miles away, the commander of the vanguard will be defeated, and by this method only half arrive. In a contest for advantage thirty miles away, two-thirds arrive. Thus, an army without baggage and heavy equipment is lost; without provisions it is lost; without stored supplies it is lost. Therefore, one who does not know the plans of the other lords cannot form alliances in advance. One who does not know the terrain of mountains, forests, dangerous defiles, obstacles, and marshes cannot march an army. One who does not employ local guides cannot obtain the advantages of the ground.\n\nTherefore, an army is established through deception, moves for advantage, and changes through division and concentration. Thus, let its speed be like the wind, its measured movement like a forest, its invasion and plundering like fire, and its immovability like a mountain. Let it be as difficult to know as darkness and move like a thunderclap. When plundering the countryside, divide your forces; when expanding your territory, divide the gains. Weigh the balance and then move. The one who first understands the calculation of indirect and direct routes will win. This is the method of the contest for advantage.\n\nThe Military Administration says: “Because spoken words cannot be heard from one unit to another, gongs and drums are used. Because soldiers cannot see one another, banners and flags are used.” Gongs, drums, banners, and flags unify the people’s ears and eyes. Once the people are unified, the brave cannot advance alone and the cowardly cannot retreat alone. This is the method of employing large forces. Therefore, in night battles use many gongs and drums, and in daytime battles use many banners and flags. These redirect the soldiers’ ears and eyes according to circumstances.\n\nThe spirit of an entire army can be taken away, and a commander’s resolve can be taken away. Thus, in the morning, spirit is keen; during the day, it becomes sluggish; by evening, it turns toward home. Therefore, one skilled in employing an army avoids the enemy when his spirit is keen and strikes him when his spirit is sluggish and turning homeward. This is controlling spirit. Waiting in good order for disorder and in calm for clamor is controlling the mind. Waiting near the battlefield for an enemy coming from far away, waiting rested for the weary, and waiting well fed for the hungry is controlling strength. Do not intercept banners in perfect order, and do not attack an imposing formation. This is controlling change.\n\nTherefore, the method of employing an army is this: do not advance uphill against an enemy on high ground; do not oppose an enemy with hills behind him; do not pursue an enemy who feigns retreat; do not attack elite troops whose ardor is keen; do not swallow bait offered by enemy troops; do not block an army returning home; when surrounding an army, always leave an opening; do not press a desperate enemy. This is the method of employing an army.\n\n### Chapter 8 — Nine Variations\n\nSunzi said: As a general rule for employing an army, the commander receives his orders from the ruler, assembles the army, and gathers the troops. Do not camp on difficult ground. Join alliances on crossroads ground. Do not linger on isolated ground. Make plans on encircled ground. Fight on death ground. There are roads that must not be taken, armies that must not be attacked, cities that must not be assaulted, ground that must not be contested, and commands from the ruler that must not be obeyed. Therefore, a commander who understands the advantages of the nine variations knows how to employ an army. A commander who does not understand the advantages of the nine variations may know the terrain but cannot obtain its advantages. One who directs an army without knowing the methods of the nine variations may know the advantages of the ground but cannot make full use of his men.\n\nTherefore, the wise person’s deliberations always combine advantage and harm. By considering harm within advantage, his undertaking can be trusted to succeed; by considering advantage within harm, his troubles can be resolved. Therefore, subdue the other lords by threatening harm, keep them occupied with burdensome affairs, and make them hurry after profit.\n\nTherefore, the method of employing an army is not to rely on the enemy’s not coming, but to rely on having the means to await him; not to rely on his not attacking, but to rely on having a position he cannot attack.\n\nTherefore, a commander faces five dangers: if determined to die, he can be killed; if determined to survive, he can be captured; if quick-tempered, he can be provoked; if scrupulously honorable, he can be humiliated; if he loves the people, he can be harassed. These five are faults in a commander and disasters in employing an army. The destruction of an army and the death of its commander will certainly result from these five dangers, so they must be carefully examined.\n\n### Chapter 9 — Marching the Army\n\nSunzi said: In general, when positioning an army and observing the enemy, cross mountains by keeping near valleys. Occupy high ground facing the sunny side. When fighting on elevated ground, do not climb up to engage the enemy. This is how to position an army in mountains. After crossing a river, move far away from it. When an invading enemy is crossing a river, do not meet him in the water. Let half his force cross and then attack it; this is advantageous. If you want battle, do not face the invader close to the riverbank. Occupy high ground facing the sunny side, and do not face the current. This is how to position an army near water. When crossing salt marshes, leave quickly and do not linger. If you encounter an enemy within a salt marsh, stay close to water and grass, with many trees behind you. This is how to position an army in salt marshes. On level ground, occupy open terrain with high ground to your right and rear, death ground in front, and life ground behind. This is how to position an army on level ground. The advantages of these four ways of positioning an army enabled the Yellow Emperor to defeat the four emperors.\n\nEvery army prefers high ground and dislikes low ground, values the sunny side and avoids the shady side, stays where life can be sustained, and occupies solid ground. Then the army will be free of the many illnesses, and this means certain victory. On hills, embankments, and dikes, always occupy the sunny side and keep them to your right and rear. These are military advantages and assistance from the ground. When rain falls upstream and foam comes down the river, those wishing to cross should wait until the water has settled.\n\nWhenever the ground contains impassable ravines, natural wells, natural prisons, natural nets, natural pits, or natural fissures, leave them quickly and do not approach them. Keep them far from us and near the enemy; face them while making the enemy put his back to them. If near the army there are dangerous defiles, ponds, reed beds, forests, or dense thickets, they must be searched carefully and repeatedly. These are places where ambushes and spies hide.\n\nAn enemy who is near and remains quiet relies on the difficulty of his position. One who is far away and challenges you to battle wants you to advance. If the ground he occupies is easy, it offers him an advantage. Movement among many trees means the enemy is approaching. Many screens set up in the grass create suspicion. Birds taking flight indicate an ambush. Startled animals indicate a surprise attack. Dust rising high and sharp indicates chariots approaching. Dust that stays low and spreads broadly indicates infantry approaching. Dust dispersed in separate strands indicates parties gathering firewood. Small clouds of dust moving back and forth indicate an army making camp. Humble words accompanied by increased preparations indicate an advance. Forceful words accompanied by an aggressive forward drive indicate a retreat. Light chariots emerging first and taking positions on the flanks indicate formation for battle. A request for peace without a prior agreement indicates a plot. Troops running about and taking up formation indicate that the appointed time for battle has come. Half advancing and half retreating indicates a lure. Soldiers standing while leaning on their weapons are hungry. Men drawing water and drinking before carrying it back are thirsty. Seeing an advantage but not advancing indicates weariness. Birds gathering over a place indicate that it is empty. Cries in the night indicate fear. Disorder in the army indicates that the commander lacks authority. Moving banners and flags indicate confusion. Angry officers indicate exhaustion. Feeding grain to horses, slaughtering pack animals for food, putting away cooking pots, and not returning to shelters indicate a desperate enemy. Men whispering together in small groups and speaking softly indicate that the commander has lost the troops. Frequent rewards indicate distress. Frequent punishments indicate severe difficulty. A commander who begins with brutality and later fears his troops is extremely incompetent. An enemy who sends envoys with conciliatory words wants a respite. When opposing troops angrily confront each other but neither engage nor withdraw for a long time, the situation must be carefully examined.\n\nTherefore, an army does not benefit merely from having more troops. It is enough not to advance recklessly, to concentrate strength, assess the enemy, and win the loyalty of the troops. One who is thoughtless and underestimates the enemy will certainly be captured.\n\nIf soldiers are punished before they have become attached to their commander, they will not submit. If they do not submit, they will be difficult to employ. If soldiers have already become attached but punishments are not enforced, they cannot be employed. Therefore, command them through civil methods and bring them into line through martial discipline. This means certain success. If orders are consistently enforced when the people are trained, the people will submit. If orders are not consistently enforced when the people are trained, the people will not submit. Consistent enforcement of orders means that the commander and the troops are in harmony.\n\n### Chapter 10 — Terrain\n\nSunzi said: In general, terrain may be accessible, entangling, temporizing, constricted, precipitous, or distant. Ground over which we can go and the enemy can come is called accessible. On accessible terrain, first occupy high ground on the sunny side and keep your supply routes open; then it is advantageous to fight. Ground over which one can go but from which it is difficult to return is called entangling. On entangling terrain, if the enemy is unprepared, go out and defeat him. If the enemy is prepared and you go out but do not defeat him, it will be difficult to return, and this is disadvantageous. Ground on which it is disadvantageous for us to go out and disadvantageous for the enemy to come out is called temporizing. On temporizing terrain, even if the enemy offers us an advantage, we should not go out. Draw back and leave; when half the enemy’s army has emerged, attack it, and this will be advantageous. On constricted terrain, if we occupy it first, we must fill it with troops and await the enemy. If the enemy occupies it first and has filled it with troops, do not follow him in; if he has not filled it, follow him in. On precipitous terrain, if we occupy it first, we must hold high ground on the sunny side and await the enemy. If the enemy occupies it first, draw back and leave; do not follow him. On distant terrain, when strategic conditions are equal, it is difficult to provoke battle, and fighting brings no advantage. These six are the principles of terrain. Examining them is the commander’s highest responsibility and cannot be neglected.\n\nThus, an army may flee, become insubordinate, collapse, crumble, fall into disorder, or be routed. These six are not disasters from Heaven but faults of the commander. When strategic conditions are equal and one is sent against ten, the result is flight. When the soldiers are strong and the officers weak, the result is insubordination. When the officers are strong and the soldiers weak, the result is collapse. When senior officers are angry and disobedient, encounter the enemy, and resentfully fight on their own because the commander does not understand their capabilities, the result is crumbling. When the commander is weak and not strict, his instructions are unclear, officers and soldiers have no fixed duties, and formations are deployed haphazardly, the result is disorder. When the commander cannot assess the enemy, pits a small force against a large one, attacks strength with weakness, and has no selected vanguard, the result is rout. These six are ways to defeat. Examining them is the commander’s highest responsibility and cannot be neglected.\n\nTerrain is an army’s aid. Assessing the enemy to control victory and calculating dangers, narrow passes, and distances are the way of a superior commander. One who knows these things and uses them in battle will certainly win; one who does not know them and uses battle will certainly lose. Therefore, if the principles of battle indicate certain victory, it is permissible to fight even if the ruler says not to fight. If the principles of battle indicate that victory is impossible, it is permissible not to fight even if the ruler says to fight. Thus, a commander who advances without seeking fame and retreats without avoiding blame, whose only concern is protecting the people and whose actions accord with the ruler’s interests, is the treasure of the state.\n\nRegard your soldiers as infants, and you can lead them into the deepest ravines. Regard your soldiers as beloved sons, and you can die together with them. But if you treat them generously and cannot employ them, love them and cannot command them, or let them become disorderly and cannot govern them, they are like spoiled children and cannot be used.\n\nKnowing that our soldiers can attack but not knowing that the enemy cannot be attacked gives only half the assurance of victory. Knowing that the enemy can be attacked but not knowing that our soldiers cannot attack gives only half the assurance of victory. Knowing that the enemy can be attacked and that our soldiers can attack, but not knowing that the terrain does not permit battle, gives only half the assurance of victory. Therefore, one who understands warfare moves without confusion and acts without exhausting his resources. Thus it is said: Know the enemy and know yourself, and your victory will not be imperiled. Know Heaven and know Earth, and your victory can be complete.\n\n### Chapter 11 — Nine Grounds\n\nSunzi said: As a general rule for employing an army, there is dispersive ground, light ground, contested ground, intersecting ground, crossroads ground, heavy ground, difficult ground, encircled ground, and death ground. When the other lords fight within their own territory, it is dispersive ground. When one enters another’s territory but not deeply, it is light ground. Ground advantageous to us if we gain it and advantageous to the enemy if he gains it is contested ground. Ground over which we can go and the enemy can come is intersecting ground. Territory adjoining three other states, where the first to arrive can gain the support of the multitudes under Heaven, is crossroads ground. When one has penetrated deeply into another’s territory and has passed many walled cities and towns, it is heavy ground. Mountains, forests, dangerous defiles, obstacles, marshes, and every route that is difficult to travel are difficult ground. Ground whose entrance is narrow, whose route of return is circuitous, and where a small enemy force can strike our large force is encircled ground. Ground where fighting quickly brings survival and failure to fight quickly brings destruction is death ground. Therefore, do not fight on dispersive ground; do not stop on light ground; do not attack on contested ground; do not let your forces become cut off on intersecting ground; join alliances on crossroads ground; plunder supplies on heavy ground; keep moving on difficult ground; make plans on encircled ground; and fight on death ground.\n\nThose who in ancient times were said to be skilled in employing an army could keep the enemy’s front and rear from reaching each other, his large and small forces from relying on each other, his high-ranking and low-ranking men from rescuing each other, and his superiors and subordinates from supporting each other. They could keep separated soldiers from assembling and assembled troops from becoming orderly. They moved when it accorded with advantage and stopped when it did not accord with advantage. Someone may dare to ask: “If the enemy is numerous, orderly, and about to advance, how should we meet him?” I reply: “First seize something he cherishes, and he will obey you.” The essential nature of warfare is speed: exploit the enemy’s failure to reach a position, travel by routes he does not anticipate, and attack where he is not on guard.\n\nIn general, the way of an invading army is that when it penetrates deeply, its troops become united and the defenders cannot overcome it. Plunder fertile country so that the entire army has sufficient food. Carefully nurture the troops and do not weary them. Unite their spirit and accumulate their strength. Maneuver the army and devise plans so that your intentions cannot be fathomed. Throw the troops into a place from which there is nowhere to go, and they will die rather than flee. If they are ready to die, how can officers and soldiers fail to exert their full strength? When soldiers are in extreme danger, they do not fear. When there is nowhere to go, they stand firm. When they penetrate deeply, they hold together. When they have no alternative, they fight. Therefore, such troops stay alert without being drilled, do what is wanted without being asked, are close-knit without agreements, and can be trusted without commands. Prohibit omens and eliminate doubts, and they will go nowhere else even until death. If my officers have no surplus wealth, it is not because they despise material goods. If they have no expectation of surviving, it is not because they dislike long life. On the day the order to advance is issued, seated officers and soldiers wet their lapels with tears, while those lying down let tears run across their cheeks. But throw them into a place from which there is nowhere to go, and they will show the courage of Zhuan Zhu and Cao Gui.\n\nTherefore, one skilled in employing an army is like the Swiftly Striking snake. The Swiftly Striking snake lives on Mount Chang. Strike its head, and its tail arrives; strike its tail, and its head arrives; strike its middle, and both head and tail arrive. Someone may dare to ask: “Can an army be made to act like the Swiftly Striking snake?” I reply: “It can. The people of Wu and the people of Yue hate each other, but if they are crossing a river in the same boat and encounter a storm, they rescue each other like the left and right hands.” Therefore, tethering horses and burying chariot wheels are not enough to rely on. Making everyone equally courageous is the way of government. Making full use of both the strong and the weak is the principle of terrain. Therefore, one skilled in employing an army leads his troops hand in hand as if they were one person, because they have no alternative.\n\nThe business of a commander is to remain calm and inscrutable, upright and disciplined. He must be able to keep the eyes and ears of his officers and soldiers ignorant, so that they know nothing. He changes his undertakings and alters his plans, so that others cannot recognize them. He changes his encampments and takes circuitous routes, so that others cannot anticipate him. When a commander gives his troops their appointed task, it is like climbing to a height and then removing the ladder. When a commander leads them deeply into the territory of another lord and releases the trigger, he burns the boats and smashes the cooking pots. He drives them like a flock of sheep, driving them there and driving them back, with none knowing where they are going. Gathering the army’s multitudes and throwing them into danger is called the business of a commander. The variations of the nine kinds of ground, the advantages of contraction and extension, and the principles of human nature must be carefully examined.\n\nIn general, the way of an invading army is that deep penetration brings unity, while shallow penetration brings dispersion. When an army has left its own state and crossed the border, it is on isolated ground. Ground open in all four directions is crossroads ground. Deep penetration is heavy ground. Shallow penetration is light ground. Ground with strong positions behind and narrow passages ahead is encircled ground. Ground from which there is nowhere to go is death ground. Therefore, on dispersive ground, I will unify the troops’ purpose. On light ground, I will keep the units connected. On contested ground, I will hurry up the rear. On intersecting ground, I will carefully guard the defenses. On crossroads ground, I will strengthen alliances. On heavy ground, I will maintain a continuous supply of food. On difficult ground, I will press forward along the route. On encircled ground, I will block the openings. On death ground, I will show the troops that they cannot survive. The nature of soldiers is to resist when surrounded, fight when they have no alternative, and obey when in extreme danger.\n\nTherefore, one who does not know the plans of the other lords cannot form alliances in advance. One who does not know the terrain of mountains, forests, dangerous defiles, obstacles, and marshes cannot march an army. One who does not employ local guides cannot obtain the advantages of the ground. One who does not know even one of these four or five matters does not command the army of a hegemonic king. When the army of a hegemonic king attacks a great state, that state’s masses cannot assemble. When his power bears down on the enemy, the enemy’s allies cannot unite. Therefore, he does not contend for alliances with all under Heaven and does not foster the power of all under Heaven. He trusts his own private designs and brings his power to bear upon the enemy. Thus, the enemy’s cities can be taken and his state can be brought down. Bestow rewards that go beyond established rules and issue commands that go beyond ordinary government. Direct the army’s multitudes as though employing one person. Set them to tasks, but do not explain your words; lead them toward advantage, but do not tell them of the harm. Throw them onto ground of destruction, and only then will they survive; sink them into death ground, and only then will they live. Only after the troops have fallen into danger can they determine victory or defeat. Therefore, the business of warfare lies in pretending to comply with the enemy’s intentions, concentrating against him in a single direction, and killing his commander a thousand miles away. This is called accomplishing a task through skill and ability.\n\nTherefore, on the day the government mobilizes the army, close the border passes and break the tallies, allowing none of the enemy’s envoys to pass. Debate the undertaking rigorously in the ancestral temple to decide its course. When the enemy opens and closes an opportunity, you must rush in. Seize first what he cherishes, while concealing the time appointed for battle. Follow established measures while adapting to the enemy, and thereby decide the battle. Thus, at first be like a secluded maiden, and the enemy will open his door. Afterward be like an escaping hare, and the enemy will be unable to resist in time.\n\n### Chapter 12 — Attack by Fire\n\nSunzi said: There are five kinds of attack by fire. The first is burning enemy soldiers; the second is burning accumulated supplies; the third is burning baggage trains; the fourth is burning arsenals and storehouses; and the fifth is burning transport routes. To carry out a fire attack, there must be a means of starting it, and incendiary materials must always be prepared. There are suitable times for setting fires and suitable days for raising them. The suitable time is when the weather is dry. The suitable days are when the moon is in the constellations of the Winnowing Basket, Wall, Wings, or Chariot Platform. Whenever the moon is in these four constellations, it is a day when winds arise.\n\nIn every fire attack, you must respond according to the changes produced by the five kinds of fire. When fire breaks out inside the enemy’s camp, respond early with an attack from outside. If fire breaks out but the enemy’s troops remain calm, wait and do not attack. When the fire reaches its greatest strength, follow up if you can; if you cannot, stop. If fire can be set from outside, do not wait for an agent within; set it when the time is right. When a fire is set upwind, do not attack from downwind. A wind that lasts through the day will cease at night. Every army must understand the changes produced by the five kinds of fire and guard for the proper conditions. Thus, using fire to support an attack produces brilliant results; using water to support an attack produces strength. Water can cut an enemy off, but it cannot seize his resources.\n\nTo win battles and take objectives but fail to consolidate the achievement is disastrous. This is called “wasteful delay.” Therefore it is said: An enlightened ruler considers the matter carefully, and an excellent commander carries it through. Do not move unless there is advantage; do not employ troops unless there is something to gain; do not fight unless there is danger. A ruler must not mobilize an army out of anger, and a commander must not bring on a battle out of resentment. Move when it accords with advantage; stop when it does not accord with advantage. Anger can turn back into pleasure, and resentment can turn back into delight, but a destroyed state cannot be restored to existence, and the dead cannot be restored to life. Therefore, an enlightened ruler is cautious, and an excellent commander is vigilant. This is the way to keep the state secure and the army intact.\n\n### Chapter 13 — Use of Spies\n\nSunzi said: In general, when an army of a hundred thousand is raised and sent on a campaign a thousand miles away, the people’s expenses and the state’s expenditures amount to a thousand pieces of gold a day. There is turmoil at home and abroad, people are exhausted on the roads, and seven hundred thousand households are unable to pursue their work. Armies may confront each other for several years to contend for victory on a single day. If, out of reluctance to spend rank, salary, and a hundred pieces of gold, one fails to learn the enemy’s situation, this is the height of inhumanity. Such a person is no commander of men, no assistant to a ruler, and no master of victory. What enables enlightened rulers and worthy commanders to move and defeat others, achieving successes beyond the multitude, is foreknowledge. Foreknowledge cannot be obtained from ghosts and spirits, cannot be inferred from analogous events, and cannot be verified by calculations. It must be obtained from people who know the enemy’s situation.\n\nTherefore, there are five kinds of spies: local spies, inside spies, converted spies, doomed spies, and surviving spies. When all five kinds operate together and no one knows their methods, this is called the “divine web,” and it is a ruler’s treasure. Local spies are recruited from the enemy’s local people. Inside spies are recruited from the enemy’s officials. Converted spies are recruited from the enemy’s spies. Doomed spies are used when we spread deceptive information outside, let our own spies know it, and have them transmit it to the enemy’s spies. Surviving spies are those who return with reports.\n\nTherefore, of all relationships in the army, none should be closer than that with spies; no rewards should be more generous than those given to spies; and no affairs should be more secret than espionage. Without sagacious wisdom, one cannot employ spies. Without benevolence and righteousness, one cannot use spies effectively. Without subtlety and ingenuity, one cannot obtain the truth from spies. Subtle, so subtle! There is nowhere spies are not employed. If an espionage operation has not yet been carried out but is heard of in advance, both the spy and the person he told must be put to death.\n\nWhenever there is an army we wish to strike, a city we wish to attack, or a person we wish to kill, we must first learn the names of the defending commander, his attendants, those who announce visitors, the gatekeepers, and the members of his staff. Order our spies to seek out and learn all of them. We must seek out enemy spies who have come to spy on us, then bribe them, guide them, and lodge them well. In this way, converted spies can be obtained and employed. Through the information gained from them, local spies and inside spies can be found and employed. Through the information gained from them, deceptive operations can be devised so that doomed spies can transmit false information to the enemy. Through the information gained from them, surviving spies can be sent and made to return at the appointed time. The ruler must know the work of all five kinds of spies, and this knowledge must depend on converted spies. Therefore, converted spies must be treated with the greatest generosity.\n\nIn ancient times, when the Yin rose to power, Yi Zhi was in Xia. When the Zhou rose to power, Lü Ya was in Yin. Therefore, an enlightened ruler or worthy commander who can use people of the highest wisdom as spies will certainly accomplish great achievements. This is the essential element of warfare, on which the entire army relies in order to move.","download_url":"https://mouseia.org/api/works/art-of-war/translations/trn_art_of_war_plain.txt"}],"retex_markdown_url":"https://mouseia.org/api/works/art-of-war/retex.md"}}